Paolo Ciucci

Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes

The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape. Many populations of brown bears, lynx, grey wolves, and wolverines persist successfully outside protected areas in Europe. Success for Europes large carnivores? Despite pessimistic forecasts, Europes large carnivores are making a comeback. Chapron et al. report that sustainable populations of brown bear, Eurasian lynx, gray wolf, and wolverine persist in one-third of mainland Europe. Moreover, many individuals and populations are surviving and increasing outside protected areas set aside for wildlife conservation. Coexistence alongside humans has become possible, argue the authors, because of improved public opinion and protective legislation. Science, this issue p. 1517

A comparison of scat-analysis methods to assess the diet of the wolf Canis lupus

Six scat-analysis methods were compared and tested for differential assessment of a wolf Canis lupus diet in the Northern Apennine Mountains, Italy. A sample of 217 wolf scats was analysed using standardised laboratory techniques, and the recovered undigested remains were quantified according to the following diet measurements: frequency of occurrence, dry weight (estimated and measured), relative volume, and biomass ingested (two methods). With the exception of one of the biomass methods, there was no significant disagreement between the procedures examined. However, some discrepancies between rankings from different methods indicated the sources of bias that should be accounted for to avoid misleading conclusions. Frequency data can be corrected to reduce some of the associated forms of bias, whereas rankings by weight and volume appear affected by the structure of undigested remains. Although to different extents, all the methods which rank food items according to direct measures of the undigested remains, i.e. by frequency, weight, and volume, suffer from the surface to volume ratio bias of varying prey sizes. Linear-regression biomass models correct for the surface/volume bias, but there are some drawbacks when applying them, and they are limited to mammalian prey. Applicability of the biomass models should be evaluated on the basis of diet composition and prey sizes, and results carefully interpreted in concert with other field-collected information. Interpretation of scat-analysis data in order to assess the diet of wolves, as well as of other carnivores, would be greatly enhanced by comparing results obtained with two or more methods.

Long-Distance Dispersal of a Rescued Wolf From the Northern Apennines to the Western Alps

Abstract By using Global Positioning System technology, we documented the long-distance dispersal of a wolf (Canis lupus) from the northern Apennines in Italy to the western Alps in France. This is the first report of long-distance dispersal of wolves in the human-dominated landscapes of southern Europe, providing conclusive evidence that the expanding wolf population in the Alps originates from the Apennine source population through natural recolonization. By crossing 4 major 4-lane highways, agricultural areas, and several regional and provincial jurisdictions, the dispersal trajectory of wolf M15 revealed a single, narrow linkage connecting the Apennine and the Alpine wolf populations. This connectivity should be ensured to allow a moderate gene flow between the 2 populations and counteract potential bottleneck effects and reduced genetic variability of the Alpine wolf population. The case we report provides an example of how hard data can be effective in mitigating public controversies originating from the natural expansion and recolonization processes of large carnivore populations. In addition, by highlighting the connectivity between these 2 transboundary wolf populations, we suggest that documenting long-distance dispersal is particularly critical to support population-based, transboundary management programs.

Ex-post compensation payments for wolf predation on livestock in Italy: a tool for conservation?

Context.Compensationprogramshavebecomeacommontooltomitigateconflictsbetweenfarmersandlargepredators; however,theireffectivenessisbasedonaseriesofassumptionsthatshouldbecarefullyandcontinuouslyassessedwithinan adaptive managementframework.Ex-postcompensation programs wereadoptedinItaly asa financial incentivetoaidwolf conservation since the 1970s; however, their implementation has never been monitored nor actively managed in the past 35 years, during which time a remarkable recovery of wolf population and range expansion into more human-dominated landscapes has taken place. Aims. We hereby report on wolf-damage compensation programs in Italy and discuss their conservation value. Methods. We used data on wolf-damage compensation that we compiled at the national scale for the period 1991–95. Although not recent, these were unfortunately the only available data at the national scale, and were instrumental in supporting our discussion on compensation programs, as these are increasingly becoming a politically and economically sensitive issue. Keyresults.From1991to1995,annualcompensationcostsrepresentedonaverage86%oftheallegedlossestofarmers, and averagede1825 440 (169760s.d.), or aboute5150 (750) per wolf per year. Compensation costs varied markedly from region to region, although local differences were hardly explainable in terms of wolf densities and their trends at the regional scale. On the contrary, they appeared largely affected by inconsistencies in rules and procedures of regional compensation schemes. Conclusions. In the light of persistently high occurrence of wolf–livestock conflict, and widespread illegal killing of wolves,wearguethatcompensationprogramsinItalycurrentlyprovidenoevidenceofbeingafunctionalandcost-effective conservation tool. However, lack of monitoring of compensation costs in Italy at all institutional levels, including nongovernment organisations (NGOs), reveals that compensation policies are not being evaluated, nor is their effectiveness being assessed. Implications.Wecontendthisisanunwiseandunsustainablestrategytoreducetheconflict,especiallyinthelightofthe recent increase in wolf numbers and, most importantly, a marked change in livestock husbandry practices. By emphasising the need for a thorough revision of the compensation schemes adopted for wolf conservation in Italy, we advocate new and theoretically sound solutions to current compensation policies.

A Preliminary Estimate of The Apennine Brown Bear Population Size Based on Hair-Snag Sampling and Multiple Data Source Mark–Recapture Huggins Models

Abstract Although the brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Abruzzo (central Apennines, Italy) suffered high mortality during the past 30 years and is potentially at high risk of extinction, no formal estimate of its abundance has been attempted. In 2004, the Italian Forest Service and Abruzzo National Park applied DNA-based techniques to hair-snag samples from the Apennine bear population. Even though sampling and theoretical limitations prevented estimating population size from being the objective of these first applications, we extracted the most we could out of the 2004 data to produce the first estimate of population size. To overcome the limitations of the sampling strategies (systematic grid, opportunistic sampling at buckthorn [Rhamnus alpina] patches, incidental sampling during other field activities), we used a multiple data-source approach and Huggins closed models implemented in program MARK. To account for model uncertainty, we averaged plausible models using Akaike weights and estimated an unconditional population size of 43 bears (95% CI  =  35–67). We urge caution in interpreting these results because other expected but undefined sources of heterogeneity (i.e., gender) may have biased this estimate. The low capture probability obtained through the systematic grid prevented the use of this sampling technique as a stand-alone tool to estimate the Apennine bear population size. Therefore, further applications in this direction will require a substantial improvement of field procedures, the use of a multiple data-source approach, or both. In this perspective, we used Monte Carlo simulations to compare the relative performance of the 3 sampling approaches and discuss their feasibility to overcome the problem of small and sparse DNA data that often prevent reliable capture–mark–recapture applications in small bear populations.

The Apennine Brown Bear: A Critical Review of Its Status and Conservation Problems

Abstract The small and isolated population of brown bears (Ursus arctos marsicanus) in the Central Apennines, Italy, has been protected since the establishment of the National Park of Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise in 1923, but little active management has been implemented during the past decades to ensure effective conservation of this population. Being almost exclusively distributed within the National Park and its immediate surrounding mountains, the Apennine brown bear population suffered high human-caused mortality in the last 3 decades, but no reliable estimates of its size, trends, and vital statistics have ever been produced. Given the paucity of information available at the international level, we have critically reviewed the status of the Apennine brown bear population and have summarized data and information concerning past management. By describing the threats that appear to be the most immediate (lack of reliable knowledge, small population size, persistent illegal killing, administrative fragmentation across the bear range), we comment on what might and might not have worked in previous conservation assessments of this population. Our final aim is to substantiate more effective conservation efforts in the immediate future. The challenge of saving the Apennine brown bear calls for a renewed effort based on sound, applied research, addressing issues from basic ecology to the human dimension.

Residents’ support for wolf and bear conservation: the moderating influence of knowledge

This article examines the combined influence of cognitions (i.e., impact beliefs) and affect (i.e., feelings) on normative beliefs (i.e., support for management options) about wolves and brown bears. Data were obtained from stratified random face-to-face interviews (n = 1,611). The survey was conducted in the Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park (central Italy), where people have a long history of coexistence with large carnivores. Knowledge was hypothesized to moderate the relationships of beliefs and feelings on support for management actions. Path analyses supported the role of affect in mediating perceived impact beliefs and support for the protection of large carnivores. Knowledge moderated these relationships in the case of wolves but not brown bears. Residents of the national park had more knowledge about bears than wolves, which might partly explain both the stronger effect that knowledge had on the affective component and its lack of a moderating effect on the bear model. Overall, our findings show the positive attitude of residents toward large carnivores and support the idea of affect being more important than cognition in predicting normative beliefs.

Assessment of the point-frame method to quantify wolf Canis lupus diet by scat analysis

Scat analysis is a widely used technique to assess food habits of wolves Canis lupus, but complete dissection and thorough hand separation of the undigested remains for their individual identification is laborious and time consuming. In addition, this technique is susceptible to inter-observer sources of error. Alternatively, the point-frame method allows systematic sampling of undigested remains of faecal samples and greatly reduces the processing time. Based on a sample of 200 wolf scats, we compared hand separation and point-frame methods using four widely used scat analysis quantification methods (frequency, volume and biomass models). Qualitative and quantitative estimates of the wolf diet showed close agreement between hand separation and point-frame procedures, but point-frame sampling allowed for an 85% reduction of the processing time. Given that the method is properly applied and its assumptions are met, we conclude that application of the point-frame method is reliable and more time effective than hand separation of wolf scat. The point-frame method could also provide a more rigorous sampling approach to reduce observer subjectivity as to what constitutes an accurate hand separation of undigested remains in scat.

The EU protected taxon Morimus funereus Mulsant, 1862 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and its western Palaearctic allies: systematics and conservation outcomes

Morimus funereus is a large longhorn beetle included in the European Habitats Directive and in previous releases of the IUCN red list. It represents a flagship species of old-growth forest saproxylic communities in E and SE Europe. The morphologically based taxonomy of W Palaearctic Morimus is rather unstable due to high phenetic intrapopulational and geographic variability and different authors have attempted to recognise one to five different taxa of specific/subspecific rank. No previous molecular data are available for the genus Morimus. Here, for the first time, a molecular approach based on COI and ITS2 gene sequences was applied in European and Anatolian Morimus specimens. The genetic variability among Euro-Anatolian Morimus populations and the geographical structure suggest that they can not be ascribed to the currently accepted five W Palaearctic Morimus species and may actually represent a single, genetically and morphologically variable biological species (M. asper), highlighting the necessity of an extended taxonomical revision. In light of these results, a phylogeographical hypothesis of postglacial colonisation of the central Mediterranean area has been developed and the consequences of this new taxonomic arrangement regarding conservation strategies for “Morimus funereus” and allied taxa in Europe and Turkey are discussed.

Seasonal and annual variation in the food habits of Apennine brown bears, central Italy

Abstract Only scanty and outdated knowledge is available on the food habits of the Apennine brown bear (Ursus arctos marsicanus) population, despite its critical conservation status. Based on 2,359 scats, collected from June 2006 through December 2009, we documented seasonal and annual variation in the diet of this bear population within its 1,294-km2 core distribution in Abruzzo, Lazio, and Molise National Park and its external buffer area in central Italy. Using correction factors to estimate digestible energy, we revealed substantial consumption of plant matter by bears, including herbaceous vegetation in spring (mean ± SD; 31.7% ± 25%) and early summer (19.0% ± 7%), a variety of naturally occurring berries in summer (56.5% ± 14%), and hard mast (66.9% ± 21%), largely supplemented by fleshy fruits (26.3% ± 18%), in the fall. Bears also consumed insects, mostly ants, in early summer (38.3% ± 7%), and wild ungulates in spring (10.2% ± 11%). Hard mast production strongly influenced year-to-year variation in the diet. High-quality foods, such as berries and other fleshy fruits, were increasingly consumed by bears in years of low to null hard mast productivity, suggesting that habitat productivity is currently high and diversified enough to allow bears to avoid the risk of nutritional stress during occasional hard mast failures. Nevertheless, as exemplified by a negative trend in late-summer consumption of buckthorn (Rhamnus spp.) berries by bears, our findings demonstrate the need to implement management strategies that will ensure long-term habitat productivity and provide optimal foraging opportunities for Apennine brown bears.