Patrice Marie Miller

A complete theory of human evolution of intelligence must consider stage changes

We show 13 stages of the development of tool-use and tool making during different eras in the evolution of Homo sapiens. We used the NeoPiagetian Model of Hierarchical Complexity rather than Piaget’s. We distinguished the use of existing methods imitated or learned from others, from doing such a task on one’s own. An important question that remains unanswered in Wynn’s target article is whether the differences seen between earlier tool-making and later tool-making reflect a change in developmental stage attained by hominids during different eras in the evolution of modern Homo sapiens. While Wynn’s previous work (Wynn 1981) related Mode I tools to the preoperational stage, here he concentrates on the development of specific spatial skills without referring to developmental stage. With more current, NeoPiagetian theories, such as the Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC), it should be possible to come up with a valid sequence. This sequence allows the specification of developmental stage both of the earliest tool-related behaviors seen in animals, including apes and early hominids, and of how thoroughly distinct each was from that of modern humans. To show the developmental sequence most accurately, it is necessary to categorize a much wider set of tool use and tool-making tasks from a variety of species, as well as whatever early hominid behaviors can be inferred from other aspects of the archeological record. Second, the stage-complexity of particular practices becomes clearer if one builds a more complete sequence, adding-in prior stages and later stages. What we have posited (Chernoff & Miller 1995; 1997; Miller 1999; Miller et al. 1999) is that chimpanzees solve social problems that are concrete operational, but not tool-making problems at this stage; instead they are one stage lower, or primary stage tasks. Homo sapiens within same-sized groups as chimpanzees solve systematic-stage problems (consolidated formal-operational, Inhelder & Piaget 1958; Kohlberg 1990). The common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans probCommentary/Wynn: Archaeology and cognitive evolution 404 BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2002) 25:3 ably did not solve concrete-stage tool-making tasks either. Hominids then had to traverse four stages: concrete, abstract, formal, and consolidated formal. To have an accurate developmental order of different types of tool use and tool making, a more detailed, complete and accurate model of development than Piaget’s is necessary. Such a model is provided by the Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC; Commons et al. 1998; Commons & Miller 1998; Commons & Wolfsont 2002). This is a nonmentalistic, NeoPiagetian model of stages of performances based on the fact that tasks can be placed in order according to their hierarchical complexity. The orders and stages resemble those suggested by NeoPiagetians (e.g., Case 1978; 1985; Fischer 1980; Pascual-Leone 1970; 1976). All of these added more stages than Piaget’s model (14 stages in the MHC), allowing for greater precision in categorizing tasks. MHC has arranged in order problem-solving tasks of various kinds: moral reasoning (Dawson 2000; 2002), reasoning about attachment (Commons 1991; Miller & Lee 1999), social perspective-taking (Commons & Rodriguez 1990; 1993) and evaluative reasoning (Dawson 1998), among others. Such ordered changes can be described by using the MHC in virtually any domain because of this model’s universality. MHC posits mathematical definitions of “ideal” actions upon which stages are based (Commons & Richards 2002). Table 1 shows a brief suggested sequence of “ideal” tool use and manufacture tasks. Note that in understanding the stage demands of a task, it is important to distinguish among using existing methods by imitating or learning (1 level of support, Fischer et al. 1984), doing such a task on one’s own (0 levels of support, as used by Piaget), versus discovering new methods of tool manufacturing (-1 level, Arlin 1975; 1984). Each decreasing level of support is harder by one stage. Commentary/Wynn: Archaeology and cognitive evolution BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2002) 25:3 405 Table 1 (Commons & Miller). Stages of ideal actions of tool making Stages Tool-making action 1. Sensory and Motor Actions (actions, perceptions) Looks at stones, touches, or holds a stone. Each of these actions is done singly and not combined with other actions. 2. Circular sensori-motor actions (organizes 2 actions) Looks at, reaches, and grabs a stone. Bangs a stone by accident on another

Perceptions of boundaries and cultural influences in Qatar

Background: Boundary issues, which regularly arise in therapy, can present dilemmas for most clinicians. There has been substantial literature on boundary excursions in clinician–patient relationships, however, very little empirical research exists and is documented. As mental health researchers, we need to investigate a wide range of sensitive topics to enhance our understanding of the many issues that arise in the psychotherapeutic frame. Aims: We set out to empirically explore perceptions of what may constitute a boundary violation among the mental health staff in the State of Qatar and their views on the subject. Results: A total of 50 participants (24 psychiatrists, 2 doctorate level psychologists, 24 psychiatric nurses) responded with a response rate of 80%. Participants rated each possible boundary violation according to its degree of harm and professional unacceptability. Three distinct groupings of boundary violations were obtained: (1) core, consisting of the most serious violations; (2) disclosure and greeting behaviour, involving disclosure of information about the therapist and greeting behaviour; and (3) separation of therapist and client lives, involving encounters between therapists and clients outside of therapy. Conclusions: It is important to ascertain these dilemmas so that these theoretical models can be integrated in clinical practice.

Predicting Feelings of Cognitive Competence in Head Start Preschoolers

ABSTRACT Little is known about what predicts the budding sense of self-competence in preschoolers. This is particularly true of cognitive competence, which may have implications for later schooling. Based on previous research with older children, it was expected that feelings of self-competence would be influenced by attitudes of significant others as well as intrapersonal dispositions. Forty-five Head Start preschoolers (M age = 4.36 years) served as participants. As expected, high effortful control and language competence, as well as teachers’ ratings of competence, predicted positive feelings about cognitive competence in children. Further analysis revealed that the teachers’ ratings were predicted by maternal education and language competence. The findings suggest that the development of cognitive self-concept in preschoolers is predicted by contextual and constitutional factors.

Folk Psychology and Criminal Law: Why We Need to Replace Folk Psychology with Behavioral Science

Much of what social scientists apply when addressing legal matters is based upon “folk psychology” as opposed to behavioral science. This article addresses how folk psychological notions arise and why they continue to exist, and then proposes an alternative view of criminal behavior with references to evidence-based stage theories—in particular, the Model of Hierarchical Complexity.

Why Not "Crying It Out" Part 2: Can Certain Infant Care Practices Cause Excessive Stress?

Understanding the importance of responsiveness is an essential foundation for communicating with parents about early care. Helping parents create healthy, responsive environments may benefit from looking at some common parenting practices and how they may impact infants’ development. The role of stress experiences is an essential consideration when choosing care. What practices may be more risky for infants and which may be more protective is the focus of Part 2.

Why Not "Crying It Out" Part 1: The Science That Tells Us That Responsiveness is Key

Considerable research, both experimental research with animals and research with humans, now documents the detrimental effects of early stress on brain development. These effects can occur not just in response to intense and repetitive stressful situations, but with some probability may also occur in situations of parenting that is not responsive. In this context, this article addresses the biologically and ethologically based reasons that crying is detrimental to infants’ development— negatively impacting neurological structures, stress responses, physical health, and socioemotional well-being.

Attorney Preparedness as Judged by Experts: An Empirical Pilot Study

This pilot study examines the “preparedness” of attorneys as perceived by respondent expert witnesses. Retaining and opposing counsel were rated with regard to their familiarity with the respondents qualifications, with the respondents published writings, and with the psychiatric and legal issues of the case in question. Respondents also addressed whether retaining and opposing counsel were sufficiently ready for deposition, direct examination at trial, and cross examination at trial. Respondents found familiarity with legal issues of the case and readiness for deposition as well as cross examination at trial to be the most salient indicia of “preparedness,” particularly when these attributes were ascribed to opposing counsel.