Patricia H. Hawley

Disentangling the “whys” from the “whats” of aggressive behaviour

We examined the validity of a measurement system for the study of aggression that distinguishes among four principle dimensions of aggressive behaviour: overt and relational aggression (i.e., the “whats”) and instrumental and reactive aggression (i.e., the “whys”). The sample comprised 1723 adolescents (Grades 5 through 10) from Berlin, Germany. The internal validity of the measurement system was strongly supported, revealing four discrete dimensions of aggression: two overriding forms (overt and relational) and two underlying functions (instrumental and reactive). The differential and unique patterns of criterion-related validity strongly supported the distinctions among the constructs. The importance of disentangling these dimensions in understanding the development of aggressive behaviour is discussed.

Prosocial and coercive configurations of resource control in early adolescence: A case for the well-adapted Machiavellian

Self- and other-reported characteristics of children who varied in their use of coercive (aggressive) and prosocial (cooperative) strategies of resource control were studied in a sample of over 1,700 children. Based on self-reported use of coercive and prosocial strategies of resource control, the children were categorized as bistrategic controllers (Machiavellians), coercive controllers, prosocial controllers, noncontrollers, or typicals. Self-reported positive characteristics (e.g., agreeableness), negative characteristics (e.g., hostility), and self-assessments (e.g., social self-concept) were measured as well as peer ratings of aggression and peer regard (e.g., likability, popularity) and teacher ratings of agreeableness, aggression, and social acceptance. As hypothesized, the subtypes differed across these variables in predictable ways. Specifically, Machiavellians (i.e., those using both strategies of resource control) emerged as possessing positive and negative characteristics and, despite their aggression, Machiavellians were socially central, liked by peers, socially skilled, and well adjusted. The utility of an evolutionary perspective to resource control and social competence is discussed as an additional model of aggression.

The evolutionary basis of risky adolescent behavior: implications for science, policy, and practice.

This article proposes an evolutionary model of risky behavior in adolescence and contrasts it with the prevailing developmental psychopathology model. The evolutionary model contends that understanding the evolutionary functions of adolescence is critical to explaining why adolescents engage in risky behavior and that successful intervention depends on working with, instead of against, adolescent goals and motivations. The current article articulates 5 key evolutionary insights into risky adolescent behavior: (a) The adolescent transition is an inflection point in development of social status and reproductive trajectories; (b) interventions need to address the adaptive functions of risky and aggressive behaviors like bullying; (c) risky adolescent behavior adaptively calibrates over development to match both harsh and unpredictable environmental conditions; (d) understanding evolved sex differences is critical for understanding the psychology of risky behavior; and (e) mismatches between current and past environments can dysregulate adolescent behavior, as demonstrated by age-segregated social groupings. The evolutionary model has broad implications for designing interventions for high-risk youth and suggests new directions for research that have not been forthcoming from other perspectives.

Strategies of Control, Aggression, and Morality in Preschoolers: An Evolutionary Perspective.

Moral reasoning, moral affect, social problem solving skills, and social preferences were assessed in 163 ethnically mixed preschoolers (2.86-5.95 years). Participants were rated by their teachers on prosocial and coercive strategies of control, success at resource control, and aggression (overt and relational). Based on their employment of coercive and prosocial strategies of resource control, the children were categorized as bistrategic controllers, coercive controllers, prosocial controllers, noncontrollers, or typicals. Teacher-rated relational aggression was positively associated with moral maturity in girls. Bistrategic controllers, although aggressive, were morally mature and preferred play partners by their peers. The results are discussed in terms of hypotheses that arise from evolutionary theory which suggests that highly effective resource controllers would be simultaneously aggressive and yet well aware of moral norms. The findings are contrasted with alternative hypotheses that might arise variously from traditional and prevailing approaches.

Social dominance and prosocial and coercive strategies of resource control in preschoolers

This study was designed to investigate the predictors of social dominance, the strategies children use to control resources (prosocial and coercive), and the associations between these strategies and measures of personality, social skills, and peer regard. A total of 30 preschoolers (ages 3–6) were rated by their teachers on social dominance. Based on these ratings, dominant children were paired with multiple subordinate children (i.e., block design; Kenny, 1990) and observed in a play situation designed to elicit resource control behaviour. As hypothesised, age and the surgency facet of extraversion predicted social dominance (but openness to experience did not). Furthermore, also as expected, both prosocial behaviour and coercive behaviour were related to resource control in the play situation. Last, both resource control strategies were associated with parent-rated social competence, but only coercive control was associated with positive peer regard (i.e., Likeability). Factors of personality (e.g. agreeableness, hostility) were not associated with either of the strategies. The utility of an evolutionary perspective to resource control and social competence is discussed.

The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females

Evolutionary and biological approaches tend to suggest that social dominance is predominately an aspect of male social organization. Furthermore, when females behave non-normatively, they are less positively evaluated than males engaging in the same behavior. Alternate, less familiar models of females and dominance/aggression underlie the present study which proposes that dominant males and females are more similar in both behavioral profile and social reception than commonly believed. Participants (N = 1723; grades 5—10) self-rated their aggression, social motivations, and strategies and beliefs associated with interpersonal influence. Peer ratings of strategies of influence, aggression, and the degree to which peers were liked and disliked were also obtained. Results demonstrated that socially dominant males and females balance prosocial and coercive strategies and win positive peer regard, their aggressiveness notwithstanding. These findings highlight competitiveness in females and provide insights into the paradoxical relationship between positive peer regard and aggression (the peer regard—aggression paradox).

Gender effects in peer nominations for aggression and social status

Little prior research has examined children’s interpersonal perceptions of peers from a social relations model framework. This study examines the degree of actor and partner variances, as well as generalised and dyadic reciprocities, in a sample of 351 sixth graders’ peer nominations of different forms and functions of aggression and aspects of social status. Gender differences in these nominations are also explored. Results indicate significant actor and partner variances for all measures, and generalised reciprocity in social status perceptions. Clear gender differences were noted in rates of nominations, such that more same-sex than cross-sex nominations were generally given for both positive and negative aspects; however, we found mixed evidence of gender differences in the variance partitioning and reciprocity correlation estimates.

Aggression and Adaptive Functioning: The Bright Side to Bad Behavior

The following four papers were presented in a symposium at the meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development (Minneapolis, 2001) entitled Aggression and Adaptive Functioning: The Bright Side to Bad Behavior. The title of the symposium hinted at what we believe to be a frequently underreported aspect of human behavior: That aggression in certain contexts may be associated with positive outcomes and desirable traits. Furthermore, at least some (and possibly many) aggressive individuals appear to be socially attractive to peers rather than repellant. Indeed, we have observed that some very aggressive children are central figures in their social groups and tend to enjoy all the benefits of social inclusion. Thus, in its own way, each of the four papers challenges currently accepted assumptions about aggressive behavior and trait aggression. We do not intend to suggest that the findings from these studies mean that “aggressive behavior is desirable.” On the contrary, we agree that there is strong evidence that at least some aggressive individuals can harm society more than a little. Rather, our studies suggest that effective people can engage in behavior defined as socially undesirable (as can the less effective). It appears that aggressive behavior is working well (i.e., is adaptive) for some individuals in that personal goals are attained at relatively little personal or interpersonal cost. This suggests

Preschoolers' social dominance, moral cognition, and moral behavior: An evolutionary perspective

Various aspects of moral functioning, aggression, and positive peer regard were assessed in 153 preschool children. Our hypotheses were inspired by an evolutionary approach to morality that construes moral norms as tools of the social elite. Accordingly, children were also rated for social dominance and strategies for its attainment. We predicted that aspects of moral functioning would be only loosely related to each other and that moral cognitions about rules (unlike emotion attributions and moral internalization) would demonstrate patterns suggestive of instrumentality. Results showed that cognitions about moral rules and internalized conscience were unrelated and that sociomoral behavior was more strongly related to the latter than to the former. In addition, promoting group norms (Selective Moral Engagement) positively predicted social dominance, whereas internalized conscience negatively predicted social dominance. Children who controlled resources via both prosocial and coercive means (i.e., bistrategic) showed enhanced moral cognitions about rules (despite high levels of aggression) but had deficits in emotional aspects of moral functioning in the eyes of teachers. Patterns of Selective Moral Engagement invite comparisons to tattling and impression management. The findings are contrasted with alternative hypotheses that are advanced from traditional yet prevailing approaches.

What’s the Matter with Kansas?: The Development and Confirmation of the Evolutionary Attitudes and Literacy Survey (EALS)

The present survey was designed to assess predominant regional belief systems and the roles these beliefs play in science understanding and attitudes, and curricular effectiveness in colleges and universities. To this end, we created a wide variety of theory-driven subscales (lower order factors) reflecting, for example, exposure to evolutionary material, young earth creationist beliefs, moral and social objections, political ideology, endorsement of intelligent design fallacies, knowledge (and distrust) of the scientific enterprise, and attitudes of evolutionary theory’s relevance in several domains (e.g., sciences and humanities). We also included potentially important demographic variables (e.g., rural upbringing, family size). Finally, we assessed openness to experience, a key facet of personality. Hierarchical Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis showed the 16 constructs to have a theoretically meaningful and quantitatively coherent higher order factor structure. In this large Kansas sample of university students, creationist reasoning and conservative orientation (political and religious) were negatively associated with exposure to evolutionary theory, knowledge about it, and positive attitudes toward its relevance. At the same time, exposure to the theory was positively associated with knowledge and positive attitudes. Importantly, though most Kansas-specific demographic variables (e.g., rural origins) were largely unrelated to outcomes of interest in this university-based sample, the personality factor openness to experience appears to be highly relevant for several higher order factors (e.g., exposure, knowledge and relevance, and creationist reasoning). We close with implications for educators and the next steps in survey development.