Patrícia Maidana Miguel

Effects of daily environmental enrichment on behavior and dendritic spine density in hippocampus following neonatal hypoxia-ischemia in the rat.

Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is the main cause of mortality in the perinatal period and morbidity, in survivors, which is characterized by neurological disabilities. The immature brain is highly susceptible to hypoxic-ischemic insult and is responsive to environmental stimuli, such as environmental enrichment (EE). Previous results indicate that EE recovered memory deficits in adult rats without reversing hippocampal atrophy related to HI. The aim of this study was to investigate behavioral performance in the open field and rota-rod apparatuses, in object recognition and inhibitory avoidance tasks, as well as dendritic spine density in the hippocampus, in rats undergoing HI and exposed to EE. Seven-day old male rats were submitted to the HI procedure and divided into 4 groups: control maintained in standard environment (CTSE), controls submitted to EE (CTEE), HI in standard environment (HISE) and HI in EE (HIEE). Behavioral and morphological parameters were evaluated 9 weeks after the environmental stimulation. Results indicate impairment in the object recognition task after HI that was recovered by enrichment; however the aversive memory impairment in the inhibitory avoidance task shown by hypoxic-ischemic rats was independent of the environment condition. Hypoxic-ischemic groups showed more crossing responses during the first minute in the open field, when compared to controls, but no differences were found between experimental groups in the rota-rod test. Dendritic spine density in the CA1 subfield of the right hippocampus (ipsilateral to the artery occlusion) was decreased after the HI insult, and increased in enriched controls; interestingly enriched HI rats did not differ from CTSE. In conclusion, EE was effective in recovering declarative memory impairment in object recognition and preserved hippocampal dendritic spine density loss after neonatal HI injury.

Behavior outcome after ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, with similar brain damage, in rats.

Stroke causes disability and mortality worldwide and is divided into ischemic and hemorrhagic subtypes. Although clinical trials suggest distinct recovery profiles for ischemic and hemorrhagic events, this is not conclusive due to stroke heterogeneity. The aim of this study was to produce similar brain damage, using experimental models of ischemic (IS) and hemorrhagic (HS) stroke and evaluate the motor spontaneous recovery profile. We used 31 Wistar rats divided into the following groups: Sham (n=7), ischemic (IS) (n=12) or hemorrhagic (HS) (n=12). Brain ischemia or hemorrhage was induced by endotelin-1 (ET-1) and collagenase type IV-S (collagenase) microinjections, respectively. All groups were evaluated in the open field, cylinder and ladder walk behavioral tests at distinct time points as from baseline to 30 days post-surgery (30 PS). Histological and morphometric analyses were used to assess the volume of lost tissue and lesion length. Present results reveal that both forms of experimental stroke had a comparable long-term pattern of damage, since no differences were found in volume of tissue lost or lesion size 30 days after surgery. However, behavioral data showed that hemorrhagic rats were less impaired at skilled walking than ischemic ones at 15 and 30 days post-surgery. We suggest that experimentally comparable stroke design is useful because it reduces heterogeneity and facilitates the assessment of neurobiological differences related to stroke subtypes; and that spontaneous skilled walking recovery differs between experimental ischemic and hemorrhagic insults.

Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia induces attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-like behavior in rats

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be caused by genetic or environmental factors. Among environmental factors, perinatal complications are related, such as neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether HI contributes to the development of characteristics related to ADHD in adult rats, and to correlate the behavioral results with brain damage volume. Male Wistar rats were divided into 2 groups: HI and control. The HI procedure consisted of a permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery followed by a period of hypoxia (90 min; 8% O₂ and 92% N₂) on the 7th postnatal day. Two months later, animals were evaluated in the open field test during a single 5-min session, and in the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), over 25 weeks. Our results demonstrated that animals submitted to HI manifest cognitive impairments in task acquisition, deficits in sustained attention, and increases in impulsivity and compulsivity in response to task manipulation in the 5-CSRTT. Locomotor activity observed in open field did not differ between groups. Moreover, brain volume loss in the total hemisphere, cerebral cortex, white matter, hippocampus, and striatum were observed in HI animals, especially on the side ipsilateral to the lesion. From these results, we can infer that neonatal HI is an environmental factor that could contribute to the development of behavioral characteristics observed in ADHD that are associated with general brain atrophy.

Environmental enrichment attenuates the blood brain barrier dysfunction induced by the neonatal hypoxia-ischemia.

Environmental enrichment (EE) is considered an efficient neuroprotector against neonatal hypoxia‐ischemia (HI). Nevertheless, the mechanisms involved are not yet clear. In this context, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of neonatal HI and environmental stimulation in the hippocampus of rats at 3 different time points (PND 8, 22 and 60), evaluating some aspects of BBB structure and function. Seven‐day‐old Wistar rats were divided into four groups: a control group maintained in a standard environment (CTSE), a control group maintained in an enrichment environment (CTEE), an HI group maintained in a standard environment (HISE) and an HI group maintained in an enrichment environment (HIEE). At the 7th postnatal day (PND), rats were submitted to the Levine‐Rice model of neonatal HI. This method consists of permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery with subsequent exposure to hypoxia. Rats from CTEE and HIEE were stimulated with environmental enrichment. The EE protocol started 24 h after HI, in which pup rats with their dams were stimulated in a maintained EE (PND 8–22). Subsequently, animals were submitted to daily EE (1 h/day, PND 23–60). The expression of some proteins involved in BBB structure (β‐catenin, occludin, connexin‐43, aquaporin‐4, glut‐1 and GFAP) were quantified by western blotting in the hippocampi of rats in three periods, at PND 8, 22 and 60. The BBB permeability and integrity was assessed by Evans blue staining and the immunohistochemistry for GFAP in the CA1 region of the hippocampus were also performed. The results showed an HI‐induced decreased occludin expression at PND 22 and low levels of occludin, β‐catenin and GFAP at PND 60 in the hippocampus of the hypoxic‐ischemic rats. Interestingly, in young and adult rats, EE reversed these effects. Evans blue extravasation into the brain parenchyma confirmed the BBB dysfunction brought on by HI. No differences were observed at PND 8, probably due to the immaturity of the BBB at this age. The present study makes an important contribution to understanding the mechanism of the hypoxic‐ischemic brain damage and also to presents, for the first time, the recovery of BBB dysfunction as a possible pathway for the protective effect of EE.

Effect of maternal exercise on biochemical parameters in rats submitted to neonatal hypoxia-ischemia

Pregnancy is a critical period for brain metabolic programming, being affected by individual environment, such as nutrition, stress, and physical exercise. In this context, we previously reported a cerebral antioxidant upregulation and mitochondrial biogenesis in the offspring delivered from exercised mothers, which could provide neuroprotection against neonatal insults. Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) encephalopathy is one of the most studied models of neonatal brain injury; disrupting motor, cognitive, and learning abilities. Physiopathology includes oxidative stress, allied to mitochondria energy production failure, glutamatergic excitotoxicity, and cell death. In this study we evaluated the effect of maternal swimming during pregnancy on offspring׳s brain oxidative status evaluated fourteen days after HI stablishment. Swimming exercise was performed by female adult rats one week before and during pregnancy, in controlled environment. Their offspring was submitted to HI on postnatal day 7, and the brain samples for biochemical assays were obtained in the weaning. Contrary to our expectations, maternal exercise did not prevent the oxidative alterations observed in brain from HI-rats. In a general way, we found a positive modulation in the activities of antioxidant enzymes, measured two weeks after HI, in hippocampus, striatum, and cerebellum of pups delivered from exercised mothers. Reactive species levels were modulated differently in each structure evaluated. Considering the scenery presented, we concluded that HI elicited a neurometabolic adaptation in both brain hemispheres, particularly in hippocampus, parietal cortex, and cerebellum; while striatum appears to be most damaged. The protocol of aerobic maternal exercise was not enough to fully prevent HI-induced brain damages.

Behavioral benefits of maternal swimming are counteracted by neonatal hypoxia-ischemia in the offspring

Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) represents one of the most common causes of neonatal encephalopathy. The central nervous system injury comprises several mechanisms, including inflammatory, excitotoxicity, and redox homeostasis unbalance leading to cell death and cognitive impairment. Exercise during pregnancy is a potential therapeutic tool due to benefits offered to mother and fetus. Swimming during pregnancy elicits a strong metabolic programming in the offsprings brain, evidenced by increased antioxidant enzymes, mitochondrial biogenesis, and neurogenesis. This article aims to evaluate whether the benefits of maternal exercise are able to prevent behavioral brain injury caused by neonatal HI. Female adult Wistar rats swam before and during pregnancy (30min/day, 5 days/week, 4 weeks). At 7(th) day after birth, the offspring was submitted to HI protocol and, in adulthood (60(th) day), it performed the behavioral tests. It was observed an increase in motor activity in the open field test in HI-rats, which was not prevented by maternal exercise. The rats subjected to maternal swimming presented an improved long-term memory in the object recognition task, which was totally reversed by neonatal HI encephalopathy. BDNF brain levels were not altered; suggesting that HI or maternal exercise effects were BDNF-independent. In summary, our data suggest a beneficial long-term effect of maternal swimming, despite not being robust enough to protect from HI injury.

Prefrontal cortex dysfunction in hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy contributes to executive function impairments in rats: Potential contribution for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Abstract Objectives: The attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) compromises the quality of life of individuals including adaptation to the social environment. ADHD aetiology includes perinatal conditions such as hypoxic-ischaemic events; preclinical studies have demonstrated attentional deficits and impulsive-hyperactive outcomes after neonatal hypoxic and/or ischaemic intervention, but data are missing to understand this relationship. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate executive function (EF) and impulsivity, and tissue integrity and dopaminergic function in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of rats submitted to hypoxia-ischaemia (HI). Methods: At postnatal day (PND) 7, male Wistar rats were divided into control (n = 10) and HI groups (n = 11) and the HI procedure was conducted. At PND60, the animals were tested in the attentional set-shifting (ASS) task to EF and in the tolerance to delay of reward for assessment of impulsivity. After, morphological analysis and the dopaminergic system were evaluated in the PFC. Results: Animals subjected to HI had impairments in EF evidenced by a behavioural inflexibility that was correlated to PFC atrophy. Moreover, HI animals presented reduced D2 receptors in the ipsilateral side of ischaemia in the PFC. Conclusions: Animals submitted to HI presented impaired EF associated with tissue atrophy and dopaminergic disturbance in the PFC.

Folic acid supplementation during pregnancy prevents cognitive impairments and BDNF imbalance in the hippocampus of the offspring after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia

Folic acid (FA) supplementation (400 μg/day) has been recommended during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects. However, in some countries, flours are required to be fortified with FA, possibly increasing the levels of this vitamin in pregnant women. Our previous studies have evidenced a dual effect of the FA treatment in a rat model of neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). Aiming to better correlate with humans, this paper evaluated the effects of two different levels of FA supplementation during pregnancy on memory parameters and neuronal survival and plasticity in the hippocampus of rats submitted to the neonatal HI. During pregnancy, female Wistar rats received one of these diets: standard (SD), supplemented with 2 mg/kg of FA or with 20 mg/kg of FA. At the 7th PND, rats suffered the HI procedure. At the 60th PND rats were evaluated in the open field, Morris water maze, novel-object recognition and inhibitory avoidance tasks. Furthermore, neuronal density, synaptophysin densitometry and BDNF concentration were assessed in the hippocampus. Both doses of FA prevented the HI-induced memory impairments. The supplementation reversed the BDNF late increase in the hippocampus of the HI rats, but did not inhibit the neuronal death. In conclusion, FA supplementation during pregnancy prevented memory deficits and BDNF imbalance after neonatal HI. These findings are particularly relevant because neuroprotection was achieved even in the high level of FA supplementation during pregnancy, indicating that this intervention would be considered secure for the offspring development.

Gestational folic acid supplementation does not affects the maternal behavior and the early development of rats submitted to neonatal hypoxia-ischemia but the high supplementation impairs the dam’s memory and the Na+, K+ - ATPase activity in the pup’s hippocampus

Folic acid (FA) is a B‐complex vitamin important to the development of the fetus, being supplemented during pregnancy. Our recent findings showed that gestation supplementation (normal and excess doses) prevented the cognitive deficits and BDNF imbalance in adult rats that were submitted to neonatal hypoxia‐ischemia (HI). To better understand this protective effect, the present study aimed to evaluate whether FA supplementation could be related to (1) maternal behavior, memory and Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus of the dams; (2) on somatic growth, early neurobehavioral development and Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus of the offspring; and (3) the effects of this supplementation in pups submitted to neonatal HI. Pregnant Wistar rats were divided into three groups, according to the diet they received during gestation: standard diet (SD), supplemented with 2 mg/kg of FA (FA2 – normal dose) and supplemented with 20 mg/kg of FA (FA20 –excessive dose). At the 7th PND pups were submitted to the Levine‐Vannucci model of HI. During weaning the maternal behavior, the somatic growth and the neurobehavior development of pups were assessed. After weaning, the memory of the dams (by the Ox‐maze task) and the Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus of both dams and offspring were evaluated. Considering the dams (1), both doses of FA did not alter the maternal behavior or the Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus, but a memory deficit was observed in the high FA‐supplemented mothers. Considering the offspring (2), both FA doses did not affect the somatic growth or the neurobehavior development, but the FA20 pups had a decreased Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus. The FA supplementation did not change the parameters evaluated in the HI rats (3) and did not prevent the decreased Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus of the HI pups. These results indicate that normal FA supplementation dose does not influence the maternal behavior and memory and does not impact on the offspring early development in rats. Further studies are needed to confirm the effects of the high FA supplementation dose in the dams’ memory and in the Na+, K+ ‐ ATPase activity in the hippocampus of the offspring.