Patricia Smith

Sex identification of archaeological human remains based on amplification of the X and Y amelogenin alleles

Sex identification of archaeological human remains is essential for the exploration of gender differences in past populations. Traditional morphometric analyses fail to identify the gender of incomplete skeletal remains and that of immature individuals. In the present work, we have established a sensitive and reliable method, based on amplification of the single-copy amelogenin-encoding gene (AMG). The Y allele carries a small deletion in the first intron, facilitating the design of distinct X- and Y-specific polymerase chain reactions. Amplification with three primers, two of which are allele-specific, allows unambiguous identification of both X and Y chromosome signals in a single reaction, providing an internal control. For added confidence, the reaction may be performed in separate tubes for each allele. Using this method, the sex was determined from the skeletal remains of 18 individuals, including young children, out of 22 examined from periods ranging from 200 to around 8000 years ago. The state of skeletal preservation ranged from poor to good. Cortical and cranial bones, as well as teeth, were found to provide sufficiently preserved DNA. The success of retrieval of amplifiable DNA was not related either to the period or to the burial site. On the other hand, the method of DNA purification was critical. In our hands, direct DNA purification by Chelex from minute samples of bone/tooth powder gave the best results. This study demonstrates the applicability of the method for gender determination in skeletal remains from different periods.

Model for the examination of evolutionary trends in tooth development.

Through the use of serial computerized tomography (C-t) scans, two distinct developmental stages can be identified in mature teeth. C-t scans thus provide a non-destructive method for assessing growth within individual teeth, as well as for comparison of the development of modern and fossil teeth. The second deciduous molar (DM2) and first permanent molar (M1) resemble one another morphologically, despite differences in size and developmental rates. Thus, they provide an excellent model for studying variation in growth within an individual. To test the C-t method, we first examined a recent archaeological sample and then examined teeth from Skhul I. Serial C-t scans were used to compare two distinct developmental stages represented by the dentine-enamel junction (DEJ) and outer enamel surface (OES), respectively, in mandibular DM2 and M1 of 31 archaeological specimens. The difference in form and size between these two surfaces in and between teeth was calculated from intercusp distances measured at the DEJ and OES using the form distance matrix. Intercusp distances at the DEJ and OES of these teeth were then compared to their counterparts in the DM2 and M1 of Skhul I, taken here as representative of early anatomically modern Homo sapiens sapiens. Form differences between paired DM2 and M1 at the DEJ were smaller than those at the OES, supporting the hypothesis that differences between the two teeth increase throughout development. The increase in intercusp distances from the DEJ to OES was found to reflect the angulation of cusps relative to one another, rather than enamel thickness. Form differences between the Skhul DM2 and M1 were smaller than those observed in the recent series, and the recent M1 differed more than the DM2 from its fossil counterpart. The similarities found between the Skhul permanent and deciduous teeth and the recent DM2, may reflect a similar growth pattern. This would contribute to earlier crown completion in the fossil M1.

Crown components of mandibular molar teeth in 45,X females (Turner syndrome).

This study was designed to determine the possible effect of one X-chromosome constitution on components of the human permanent and primary molar teeth. Enamel, dentine, pulp and crown dimensions were measured on radiographs of first and second permanent and second primary mandibular molars of 49 Finnish 45,X females (Turner syndrome), their 46 first-degree male and female relatives and 50 non-related males and females. In permanent first and second molars of the 45,X females, crown width and the dimensions of tooth components were less than those of normal females and males. Reduction in size affected first more than second molars, and in both teeth the enamel was relatively as well as absolutely thinner than in the controls. No differences were found in tooth components between normal relatives and unrelated controls. These data agree with previous studies which have demonstrated that the X chromosome promotes enamel apposition and that both X chromosomes in normal females are active in amelogenesis, while the Y chromosome influences both dentine and enamel growth. The relative reduction in dentine or the estimated mesiodistal width of the tooth germ in the 45,X females indicates that their tooth development is affected at an early stage of morphogenesis. Taken together with the results already reported for anterior teeth, the present results suggest that there is an inverse correlation between the duration of crown formation and the severity of size reduction.

MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPING CROWNS OF MAXILLARY PRIMARY SECOND MOLARS AND PERMANENT FIRST MOLARS IN HUMANS

The purpose of this study was firstly to characterize the changes occurring in size and form of the mineralizing maxillary second primary molar and first permanent molar crowns, and secondly to determine if similar changes in size and form characterize enamel apposition in the crowns of these teeth. Twenty-five primary second molars and 20 maxillary permanent first molars at various stages of development, found in archaeological excavations in Israel, were examined for a number of measured variables using image analyser software. Teeth were divided into two groups according to their stage of development: stage I included all teeth at an early stage of development in which mesiobuccal-cusp height was less than 5 mm for the primary molar and 5.9 mm for the permanent molar; stage 2 included all teeth in later stages of development where mesiobuccal-cusp height was greater than these values. In the primary molar, a significant increase was found between the two stages in almost all variables. Significant correlations were also found between all intercusp distances and the external variables. Strong correlations between height of the mesiobuccal cusp and all external and internal variables were noted in stage 1, but fewer in stage 2. In the permanent tooth, no increase was observed in intercusp distances and very few correlations were found between and among the variables. The results suggest that a change in the shape of the maxillary primary second molar occurs during formation, with the lingual cusp tips moving lingually and distally, and the distobuccal cusp tips moving distally. No change occurs in the shape of the maxillary permanent first molar during crown formation. Growth of the maxillary primary second and permanent first molar crowns occurs in bursts of development.

Morphometric variables of developing primary maxillary first molar crowns in humans

The following morphometric variables were examined in 18 primary maxillary first molars at various stages of development, collected from archaeological excavation sites in Israel: perimeters and areas from the occlusal view; buccolingual and mesiodistal dimensions and intercusp distances; the angle between the line joining the distobuccal, mesiobuccal and lingual cusps; and the height of the mesiobuccal cusp. An image-analysing technique comprising a photographic camera, a monitor, a computer with appropriate software and a digital caliper was used. Significant correlations were demonstrated between most variables. Teeth were divided into two groups according to their stage of development: stage one included all teeth at an early stage of development in which mesiobuccal cusp height was less than 5 mm; stage two included all teeth in later stages of development where mesiobuccal cusp height was greater than 5 mm. All external variables showed an increase in size between the two stages (while, among the internal ones, only the angle between the cusps showed a very small increase). The small sample is a limitation but the results suggest the following: (1) growth of the primary maxillary molar crown occurs with bursts of development ; and (2) a change in the shape of the crown occurs during its formation where the mesiobuccal cusp moves buccally and distally, and the lingual cusp moves mesially.

Transfection of cells by immunoporation.

Cell transfection is now a central technique in molecular biology and an essential prerequisite for gene therapy. Here we describe how beads coated with antibodies and bound to specific cell-surface transmembrane proteins can create holes in cells when the beads are removed, allowing transfection of the cells with DNA or other macromolecules. This unique targeted transfection of cells by immunoporation is very efficient and results in minimal cell death.

Egyptian-Canaanite interaction at Nahal tillah, Israel (ca. 4500-3000 B.C.E.) : An interim report on the 1994-1995 excavations

The nature of the Dynasty 0-Dynasty I Egyptian presence in southern Israel has been a source of debate since the excavations of Tel Erani on the fringe of the northern Negev in the 1950s when numerous Egyptian artifacts were discovered. Since then, a wide range of models have been used to characterize the nature of Egyptian-Canaanite relations. These models include warfare/conquest, commercialization, distance parity, and world systems. The recent Nahal Tillah Regional Archaeology Project has provided a wealth of new empirical data to help clarify the nature of this interaction. Large-scale exposures on the Halif Terrace have revealed a wide range of Egyptian artifacts including epigraphic finds, evidence of Egyptian food consumption patterns, amulets, ceramics, an Egyptian-style mortuary structure, and more. The data from these new excavations require a reexamination of previously held assumptions concerning the dynamics of Egyptian-Canaanite interaction ca. 3500 to 3000 B. C. E.

The Physical Characteristics and Biological Affinities of the MB I Skeletal Remains from Jebel Qaaqir

Who were the MB I people of Palestine? If they were newcomers, as seems likely, where did they come from? How did they enter the land and where did they settle? Why did they disappear so mysteriously at the end of the period? In these words Dever (1971: 197) defined one of the main problems posed by the change between the urban, densely populated Early Bronze period and the more sparsely occupied, nonurban culture that succeeded it in Middle Bronze I (hereafter MB I, although now more commonly referred to as EB IV; Dever 1980). Although over the past ten years we have learned more of the lifestyle of the MB I population of Israel and Jordan (Dever 1980), little is yet known of their physical characteristics, since very few human skeletal remains from this period have been studied even though much of our knowledge of the MB I culture is derived from tomb excavations.

Intercusp differences in enamel prism patterns in early and late stages of human tooth development

Enamel prism-packing patterns reflect the past history of ameloblasts, providing information about growth patterns in tooth development. Here, the area and density of enamel prisms on the cuspal surface of molar teeth were measured to examine if the onset and rate of enamel apposition differ according to stage of development and/or cusp type. Scanning electron-microscopic images were taken from the mesiobuccal and distal cusp tips of 30 mandibular first permanent molars at different stages of development recovered from archaeological sites in Israel dating to the past 10000 years. Selected enamel microstructural characters were measured for each cusp. The mean area of prisms on the mesiobuccal (MB) cusp was significantly larger than that of the distal (D) cusp at all stages of development and the differences in prism area between cusps were significant for each stage of development. Prism density was significantly smaller on the MB cusp than the D cusp at all stages of development but no significant differences were found between early and later stages in each cusp. This was interpreted as indicating that enamel formation in the MB cusp was almost complete, even in the earliest tooth germs studied, whereas in the D cusp it was less advanced. The differences between MB and D cusps are proposed to result from asynchrony of enamel formation between the different cusps of molar teeth in recent populations. The method provides a non-destructive approach to the study of growth patterns in teeth and provides baseline data for comparison with fossil teeth.

The Geneology of the Goliath Family

The chance discovery of a Herodian period family tomb at Jericho (above), spanning three generations and identifying the individuals whose bones were interred in the inscribed ossuaries, provides a unique opportunity for correlating archeological and osteological data. The purpose of this discussion and the Appendix below is: (1) to describe the nature and results of the multidisciplinary investigation of the skeletal remains; (2) to identify individuals in terms of sex, age at death, and certain physical peculiarities; and (3) to reconstruct as far as possible the geneology of the Goliath family at Jericho. (See Hachlili above for general discussion, and especially the Family Tree, fig. 49.) Table 1 summarizes the location of the ossuaries within the tomb, the associated inscriptions, and the osteological findings. As is frequently the case in limestone ossuaries, the bones were extremely friable and difficult to study. However, the osteological findings, with one exception, collaborated the inscriptions. The exception, Ossuary XIX, was inscribed with the names of a mother and two sons, although only the bones of one of the children, a four-year old, were identified. Several of the ossuaries contained the bones of more than one individual. Of these, Ossuary VII contained the bones of two adults, presumably mother and son (see Appendix below); Ossuary XI contained bones of an adult male and an adolescent (presumably his son); and three ossuaries (I, XVII, and XIX) contained bones of women with infants, presumably in each case mother and child. Two very small ossuaries (XVI, XXII) were inscribed with the same name, and each contained the bones of one infant. Four individuals (H10, H12, H20, and H30), all male, were extremely tall, judging from the length of the femora. The femora of H30 were 53 cm. long, giving an estimated stature of 188.5 cm., some 20 cm. taller than the mean stature for this period (165 cm.). Two males and one female, H6, H8, and H29, all showed fusion of the bodies of the twelfth thoracic vertebrae and first lumbar vertebra, and in H6 the bodies of the third and fourth thoracic vertebrae were also fused. Since the bodies were examined in situ and so could not be x-rayed, it was difficult to tell if the fusion was congenital or aquired. Finally, in one male, H19, the ankle bones (talus and calcaneum) of the right foot were fused, so that this individual must have limped badly. In all, the remains of 31 individuals were found in the ossuaries. Of these, there were 10 infants aged 05 years; one juvenile aged I11-12; two adolescents aged 16-18 years; two young females and three males aged 20-39; three females and two males in the 40-50 age range; and only two females, but four males, over 50 at the time of death. Only 38% died before the age of 20, compared with 48% in Greece for the same period (Angel 1969: 343-53). In general, infant mortality among Jews in Judaea at this time was lower than that of other Mediterranean countries and resembles that found in 19th century Bedouin (Goldstein et al. 1976: 633). Similarly, a higher percentage of individuals reached old age among the Jewish population (Table 2). These figures conform to those recorded for other Jewish remains of this period, with the