Patrick Ian Armstrong

Men and Things, Women and People: A Meta-Analysis of Sex Differences in Interests.

The magnitude and variability of sex differences in vocational interests were examined in the present meta-analysis for Hollands (1959, 1997) categories (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional), Predigers (1982) Things-People and Data-Ideas dimensions, and the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) interest areas. Technical manuals for 47 interest inventories were used, yielding 503,188 respondents. Results showed that men prefer working with things and women prefer working with people, producing a large effect size (d = 0.93) on the Things-People dimension. Men showed stronger Realistic (d = 0.84) and Investigative (d = 0.26) interests, and women showed stronger Artistic (d = -0.35), Social (d = -0.68), and Conventional (d = -0.33) interests. Sex differences favoring men were also found for more specific measures of engineering (d = 1.11), science (d = 0.36), and mathematics (d = 0.34) interests. Average effect sizes varied across interest inventories, ranging from 0.08 to 0.79. The quality of interest inventories, based on professional reputation, was not differentially related to the magnitude of sex differences. Moderators of the effect sizes included interest inventory item development strategy, scoring method, theoretical framework, and sample variables of age and cohort. Application of some item development strategies can substantially reduce sex differences. The present study suggests that interests may play a critical role in gendered occupational choices and gender disparity in the STEM fields.

Holland's RIASEC model as an integrative framework for individual differences.

and work environments. In the present study, a theoretical framework based on Holland’s (1959, 1997) structure of interests was used to assemble constellations of individual differences variables, producing an integrated model of measures of individual characteristics and the characteristic demands placed on individuals in work environments that can be used in applied settings such as career counseling. Data from a number of published sources, measuring a diverse set of individual and environmental demands, were integrated into interest structures based on Holland’s interest types.

Circular Unidimensional Scaling: A New Look at Group Differences in Interest Structure

The fit of J. L. Holland’s (1959, 1997) RIASEC model to U.S. racial– ethnic groups was assessed using circular unidimensional scaling. Samples of African American, Asian American, Caucasian American, and Hispanic American high school students and employed adults who completed either the UNIACT Interest Inventory (K. B. Swaney, 1995) or the Strong Interest Inventory (L. W. Harmon, J. C. Hansen, F. H. Borgen, & A. L. Hammer, 1994) were obtained from published sources. Two circumplex models were evaluated: a quasi-circumplex model with unconstrained distances between adjacent types and a circulant model constrained to equal distances. Results indicate that a quasi-circumplex model was a good fit with all samples; however, the circulant model may be more appropriate for Asian Americans and Caucasian Americans than for other groups. Circulant model results suggest that distinctions made between Holland’s types may be less salient for some groups and that additional work is needed to produce interest measures with improved structural validity.

Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites: Exploring Patterns Through Cluster Analysis

Participants (230 White college students) completed the Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites (PCRW) Scale. Using cluster analysis, we identified 5 distinct cluster groups on the basis of PCRW subscale scores: the unempathic and unaware cluster contained the lowest empathy scores; the insensitive and afraid cluster consisted of low empathy and guilt scores, with the highest score on fear; the fearful guilt cluster exhibited elevations on guilt and fear; the empathic but unaccountable cluster reflected high empathy with low guilt and fear; and the informed empathy and guilt cluster represented those high on empathy and guilt in conjunction with low levels of fear. Groups were validated on an additional sample (n = 366) and were found to differ significantly on theoretically related measures.

The Strong Ring: A Basic Interest Model of Occupational Structure.

A classification system and spatial map of occupations were developed using the Basic Interest Scale profiles of 198 occupational incumbent samples (31,010 women; 32,421 men) from the Strong Interest Inventory. Profile shape was found to be similar for incumbents of both genders, allowing for an analysis of combined-gender samples. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, the authors identified 9 general interest areas subdivided into 19 occupational clusters. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling was used to create a spatial representation, producing a 3-dimensional ringlike structure called the Strong Ring. Dimension labels were identified using property vector fitting of O*NET variables. These dimensions were (a) Persuasion Versus Problem Solving, (b) Structured Versus Dynamic, and (c) Social Service Versus Solitary Work. This new model provides an organizational and interpretive framework for professional, technical, managerial, and skilled occupations. Of all widely used psychological tests, the Strong Interest Inventory, first published in 1927, has the longest history (Campbell, 1971). Research on the Strong Interest Inventory (herein called the Strong) has had a major impact on interest assessment and career counseling (Borgen, 1986). Of the many contributions, the introduction of the Occupational Scales (E. K. Strong, 1927), the development of Basic Interest Scales (BISs; Campbell, Borgen, Eastes, Johansson, & Peterson, 1968), and the use of Holland’s (1959, 1997) theory to organize and interpret interest scales from the Strong (Campbell, 1974) have had a lasting effect on interest measurement (Hansen, 1984). The 1994 edition (Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994) of the Strong is organized around Holland’s theory, with BISs and Occupational Scales organized by Holland type. The purpose of the present study was to revisit the use of Holland’s RIASEC classification system with the Strong scales and to develop an alternative classification system and spatial model using the BIS profiles of the Occupational Scales incumbent samples. We propose using basic interest profiles to develop a new occupational classification system because these measures allow for a more detailed and representative model of vocational interests than the Holland system. Basic Interests

Cross-Cultural Validity of the Self-Stigma of Seeking Help (SSOSH) Scale: Examination Across Six Nations

Researchers have found that the stigma associated with seeking therapy--particularly self-stigma--can inhibit the use of psychological services. Yet, most of the research on self-stigma has been conducted in the United States. This is a considerable limitation, as the role of self-stigma in the help-seeking process may vary across cultural groups. However, to examine cross-cultural variations, researchers must first develop culturally valid scales. Therefore, this study examined scale validity and reliability of the widely used Self-Stigma of Seeking Help scale (SSOSH; Vogel, Wade, & Haake, 2006) across samples from 6 different countries (England, Greece, Israel, Taiwan, Turkey, and the United States). Specifically, we used a confirmatory factor analysis framework to conduct measurement invariance analysis and latent mean comparisons of the SSOSH across the 6 sampled countries. Overall, the results suggested that the SSOSH has a similar univariate structure across countries and is sufficiently invariant across countries to be used to explore cultural differences in the way that self-stigma relates to help-seeking behavior.

Stability of Career Aspirations: A Longitudinal Test of Gottfredson’s Theory

Gottfredson’s theory of the career compromise process was evaluated using a longitudinal data set of 2,353 female and 321 male students recruited for Zuckerman’s Seven College Study, who reported their career aspirations twice over a 1-year period. Expressed career aspirations were coded on the dimensions of sex type, prestige, and the interest-based Things/People and Data/Ideas dimensions. Stability of aspirations over an 1-year period were analyzed using partial correlation analyses to control for the nonindependence of measures. Discrepancies between current and idealized career aspirations were also examined using the same methods. Contrary to predictions based on Gottfredson’s theory, student career aspirations were more stable along the prestige and Things/People dimensions than on the sex type dimension. Implications for theory, research, and career counseling practice are discussed.

Validity of the Strong Interest Inventory and Skills Confidence Inventory With Mexican American High School Students

The structural and concurrent validity of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) and Skills Confidence Inventory (SCI) was explored with a sample of 487 Mexican American high school students, and findings were compared with normative samples of the SII and SCI. Holland’s (1997) structure was evaluated using circular unidimensional scaling. The hypothesized RIASEC order was supported for general occupational theme (GOT) scores of the SII with female students but not for male students or for general confidence theme (GCT) scores of the SCI with both genders. The model fit for both measures was poor compared with results obtained with reference samples. Additional results supported the concurrent validity of GOT to GCT and both GOT and GCT scores to Holland codes for expressed occupational aspirations. Gender differences were found on four of the six GOTs and three of the six GCTs. Implications for career-related interest and self-efficacy assessment with Mexican American high school students are discussed.

Linking Leisure Interests to the RIASEC World of Work Map.

The present study presents an interpretive framework for linking leisure interests, measured by the Leisure Interest Questionnaire (LIQ), to J. L. Hollands (1997) circumplex model of the world of work. Published data representing correlations between the LIQ and Hollands RIASEC interest types were obtained from Hansen and Scullard (2002). Leisure interest measures were integrated into the RIASEC circumplex using the technique of property vector fitting. By explicitly testing the structural hypothesis in Hollands model, a clearer picture of the relations between work and leisure interests emerge. Visual presentation of leisure interests in the context of the RIASEC circumplex may facilitate the use of the LIQ in applied settings. In particular, an exploration of leisure interests as part of a larger discussion of interests and aspirations may enhance the career-counseling process with clients who are struggling with clarifying their career development plans.

Quantifying and Interpreting Group Differences in Interest Profiles

Research on group differences in interests has often focused on structural hypotheses and mean-score differences in Holland’s (1997) theory, with comparatively little research on basic interest measures. Group differences in interest profiles were examined using statistical methods for matching individuals with occupations, the C-index, Q correlations, and Euclidean distance measures. Profile similarity across U.S. racial-ethnic groups was evaluated with students and employed adults who completed the General Occupational Themes (GOT) and Basic interest scales (BIS) of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII). Obtained results suggest that profile shape varies systematically by gender and employment status, with the Euclidean distance measure being more effective than Q correlations for representing these differences and Q correlation more effective than the C-index. Group differences in interest profiles may lead to men and women receiving differential feedback on the fit between their interests and different careers, which may contribute to gender differences in the pursuit of careers in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.