Patrick L. Garcia

The BET bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 suppresses growth of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in patient-derived xenograft models

The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the antitumor efficacy of the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patient-derived xenograft (tumorgraft) models. A secondary aim of the study was to evaluate whether JQ1 decreases expression of the oncogene c-Myc in PDAC tumors, as has been reported for other tumor types. We used five PDAC tumorgraft models that retain specific characteristics of tumors of origin to evaluate the antitumor efficacy of JQ1. Tumor-bearing mice were treated with JQ1 (50 mg/kg daily for 21 or 28 days). Expression analyses were performed with tumors harvested from host mice after treatment with JQ1 or vehicle control. An nCounter PanCancer Pathways Panel (NanoString Technologies) of 230 cancer-related genes was used to identify gene products affected by JQ1. Quantitative RT–PCR, immunohistochemistry and immunoblots were carried out to confirm that changes in RNA expression reflected changes in protein expression. JQ1 inhibited the growth of all five tumorgraft models (P<0.05), each of which harbors a KRAS mutation; but induced no consistent change in expression of c-Myc protein. Expression profiling identified CDC25B, a regulator of cell cycle progression, as one of the three RNA species (TIMP3, LMO2 and CDC25B) downregulated by JQ1 (P<0.05). Inhibition of tumor progression was more closely related to decreased expression of nuclear CDC25B than to changes in c-Myc expression. JQ1 and other agents that inhibit the function of proteins with bromodomains merit further investigation for treating PDAC tumors. Work is ongoing in our laboratory to identify effective drug combinations that include JQ1.

Simultaneous combination of microtubule depolymerizing and stabilizing agents acts at low doses.

The combined activity of a stabilizing and a depolymerizing agent was studied on microtubule formation in vitro and on cellular parameters related to the cytoskeleton. New compounds in each class of microtubular drugs, docetaxel, as stabilizing agent, and CI 980, as colchicine analog, currently in clinical trials, were tested at high and low concentrations. Simultaneous combination of docetaxel and CI 980, both in vitro and in cell lines, induced microtubule structures resulting from the association of the effects of the two drugs: short and numerous microtubules in vitro, abnormal asters or short bundles in cells depolymerized in their periphery. Moreover, combining the two drugs at low concentrations inducing neither modification of the microtubular network nor variation in cell polymerized tubulin content showed synergistic effects in mitotic cell block and, at lower concentrations, in inhibition of proliferation in the KB 3-1 cell line. Similar qualitative results were obtained with paclitaxel and colcemid, used in the place of docetaxel and CI 980, respectively. At low doses, the taxoid/colchine analog combination seems to induce some degree of mitotic inhibition, resulting from a subtle effect on the inhibition of microtubule dynamics.

Development and Histopathological Characterization of Tumorgraft Models of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic cancer is the one of the deadliest of all malignancies. The five year survival rate for patients with this disease is 3-5%. Thus, there is a compelling need for novel therapeutic strategies to improve the clinical outcome for patients with pancreatic cancer. Several groups have demonstrated for other types of solid tumors that early passage human tumor xenograft models can be used to define some genetic and molecular characteristics of specific human tumors. Published studies also suggest that murine tumorgraft models (early passage xenografts derived from direct implantation of primary tumor specimens) may be useful in identifying compounds with efficacy against specific tumor types. Because pancreatic cancer is a fatal disease and few well-characterized model systems are available for translational research, we developed and characterized a panel of pancreatic tumorgraft models for biological evaluation and therapeutic drug testing. Of the 41 primary tumor specimens implanted subcutaneously into mice, 35 produced viable tumorgraft models. We document the fidelity of histological and morphological characteristics and of KRAS mutation status among primary (F0), F1, and F2 tumors for the twenty models that have progressed to the F3 generation. Importantly, our procedures produced a take rate of 85%, higher than any reported in the literature. Primary tumor specimens that failed to produce tumorgrafts were those that either contained <10% tumor cells or that were obtained from significantly smaller primary tumors. In view of the fidelity of characteristics of primary tumor specimens through at least the F2 generation in mice, we propose that these tumorgraft models represent a useful tool for identifying critical characteristics of pancreatic tumors and for evaluating potential therapies.

N-glycosylation of ICAM-2 is required for ICAM-2-mediated complete suppression of metastatic potential of SK-N-AS neuroblastoma cells

BackgroundCell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are expressed ubiquitously. Each of the four families of CAMs is comprised of glycosylated, membrane-bound proteins that participate in multiple cellular processes including cell-cell communication, cell motility, inside-out and outside-in signaling, tumorigenesis, angiogenesis and metastasis. Intercellular adhesion molecule-2 (ICAM-2), a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily of CAMs, has six N-linked glycosylation sites at amino acids (asparagines) 47, 82, 105, 153, 178 and 187. Recently, we demonstrated a previously unknown function for ICAM-2 in tumor cells. We showed that ICAM-2 suppressed neuroblastoma cell motility and growth in soft agar, and induced a juxtamembrane distribution of F-actin in vitro. We also showed that ICAM-2 completely suppressed development of disseminated tumors in vivo in a murine model of metastatic NB. These effects of ICAM-2 on NB cell phenotype in vitro and in vivo depended on the interaction of ICAM-2 with the cytoskeletal linker protein α-actinin. Interestingly, ICAM-2 did not suppress subcutaneous growth of tumors in mice, suggesting that ICAM-2 affects the metastatic but not the tumorigenic potential of NB cells. The goal of the study presented here was to determine if the glycosylation status of ICAM-2 influenced its function in neuroblastoma cells.MethodsBecause it is well documented that glycosylation facilitates essential steps in tumor progression and metastasis, we investigated whether the glycosylation status of ICAM-2 affected the phenotype of NB cells. We used site-directed mutagenesis to express hypo- or non-glycosylated variants of ICAM-2, by substituting alanine for asparagine at glycosylation sites, and compared the impact of each variant on NB cell motility, anchorage-independent growth, interaction with intracellular proteins, effect on F-actin distribution and metastatic potential in vivo.ResultsThe in vitro and in vivo phenotypes of cells expressing glycosylation site variants differed from cells expressing fully-glycosylated ICAM-2 or no ICAM-2. Most striking was the finding that mice injected intravenously with NB cells expressing glycosylation site variants survived longer (P ≤ 0.002) than mice receiving SK-N-AS cells with undetectable ICAM-2. However, unlike fully-glycosylated ICAM-2, glycosylation site variants did not completely suppress disseminated tumor development.ConclusionsReduced glycosylation of ICAM-2 significantly attenuated, but did not abolish, its ability to suppress metastatic properties of NB cells.

JQ1 Induces DNA Damage and Apoptosis, and Inhibits Tumor Growth in a Patient-Derived Xenograft Model of Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a fatal disease with a 5-year survival of <30%. For a majority of patients, chemotherapy is the only therapeutic option, and virtually all patients relapse. Gemcitabine is the first-line agent for treatment of CCA. Patients treated with gemcitabine monotherapy survive ∼8 months. Combining this agent with cisplatin increases survival by ∼3 months, but neither regimen produces durable remissions. The molecular etiology of this disease is poorly understood. To facilitate molecular characterization and development of effective therapies for CCA, we established a panel of patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of CCA. We used two of these models to investigate the antitumor efficacy and mechanism of action of the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1, an agent that has not been evaluated for the treatment of CCA. The data show that JQ1 suppressed the growth of the CCA PDX model CCA2 and demonstrate that growth suppression was concomitant with inhibition of c-Myc protein expression. A second model (CCA1) was JQ1-insensitive, with tumor progression and c-Myc expression unaffected by exposure to this agent. Also selective to CCA2 tumors, JQ1 induced DNA damage and apoptosis and downregulated multiple c-Myc transcriptional targets that regulate cell-cycle progression and DNA repair. These findings suggest that c-Myc inhibition and several of its transcriptional targets may contribute to the mechanism of action of JQ1 in this tumor type. We conclude that BET inhibitors such as JQ1 warrant further investigation for the treatment of CCA. Mol Cancer Ther; 17(1); 107–18. ©2017 AACR.

Generation and Characterization of SULT4A1 Mutant Mouse Models

Sulfotransferase 4A1 (SULT4A1) belongs to the cytosolic sulfotransferase (SULT) superfamily of enzymes that catalyze sulfonation reactions with a variety of endogenous and exogenous substrates. Of the SULTs, SULT4A1 was shown to have the highest sequence homology between vertebrate species, yet no known function or enzymatic activity has been identified for this orphan SULT. To better understand SULT4A1 function in mammalian brain, two mutant SULT4A1 mouse strains were generated utilizing clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)–content-addressable storage (Cas) 9 technology. The first strain possessed a 28-base pair (bp) deletion (Δ28) in exon 1 that resulted in a frameshift mutation with premature termination. The second strain possessed a 12-bp in-frame deletion (Δ12) immediately preceding an active site histidine111 common to the SULT family. Homozygous pups of both strains present with severe and progressive neurologic symptoms, including tremor, absence seizures, abnormal gait, ataxia, decreased weight gain compared with littermates, and death around postnatal days 21–25. SULT4A1 immunostaining was decreased in brains of heterozygous pups and not detectable in homozygous pups of both SULT4A1 mutants. SULT4A1 localization in subcellular fractions of mouse brain showed SULT4A1 associated with mitochondrial, cytosolic, and microsomal fractions, a novel localization pattern for SULTs. Finally, primary cortical neurons derived from embryonic (E15) CD-1 mice expressed high levels of SULT4A1 throughout the cell except in nuclei. Taken together, SULT4A1 appears to be an essential neuronal protein required for normal brain function, at least in mammals. Mouse models will be valuable in future studies to investigate the regulation and functions of SULT4A1 in the mammalian brain.

Whole exome sequencing identified sixty-five coding mutations in four neuroblastoma tumors

Neuroblastoma is a pediatric tumor characterized by histologic heterogeneity, and accounts for ~15% of childhood deaths from cancer. The five-year survival for patients with high-risk stage 4 disease has not improved in two decades. We used whole exome sequencing (WES) to identify mutations present in three independent high-risk stage 4 neuroblastoma tumors (COA/UAB-3, COA/UAB -6 and COA/UAB -8) and a stage 3 tumor (COA/UAB-14). Among the four tumors WES analysis identified forty-three mutations that had not been reported previously, one of which was present in two of the four tumors. WES analysis also corroborated twenty-two mutations that were reported previously. No single mutation occurred in all four tumors or in all stage 4 tumors. Three of the four tumors harbored genes with CADD scores ≥20, indicative of mutations associated with human pathologies. The average depth of coverage ranged from 39.68 to 90.27, with >99% sequences mapping to the genome. In summary, WES identified sixty-five coding mutations including forty-three mutations not reported previously in primary neuroblastoma tumors. The three stage 4 tumors contained mutations in genes encoding protein products that regulate immune function or cell adhesion and tumor cell metastasis.

Abstract 1293: JQ1 sensitivity of patient-derived xenograft models of cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a lethal malignancy arising from cholangiocytes in any part of the biliary tree. The incidence of CCA has been on the rise worldwide, and the prognosis and clinical outcome have remained essentially unchanged for 30 years. The majority of patients are diagnosed at late stage, and surgery continues to be the only cure. Patients receive systemic chemotherapy with the first-line combination therapy comprising gemcitabine and cisplatin. Median survival for these patients is To determine gene products whose upregulation or downregulation is responsible for the differences in sensitivity to JQ1 among our CCA models, we generated expression profiles of tumors from vehicle control and JQ1 treated mice using NanoString technology (nCounter PanCancer Pathways panel). Our data demonstrate that JQ1 inhibited the expression of c-Myc to a greater extent in the sensitive models than in the insensitive model. Expression array data showed further that gene products involved in cell cycle and DNA repair pathways were also decreased by JQ1. Of particular interest were two transcriptional targets of c-Myc, Chk1 and BRCA2, each of which is involved in DNA damage response. Immunohistochemistry staining confirmed expression profile analyses. We conclude that the inhibition of cell cycle and DNA repair genes may contribute to the mechanism of action of JQ1 in CCA tumors. Citation Format: Aubrey L. Miller, Patrick L. Garcia, Tracy L. Gamblin, Leona N. Council, Xiangqin Cui, James E. Bradner, Eddy S. Yang, Karina J. Yoon. JQ1 sensitivity of patient-derived xenograft models of cholangiocarcinoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 1293.

Abstract 1779: Bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 inhibits cholangiocarcinoma tumor growth in patient-derived xenograft models

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a lethal malignancy of the biliary epithelium that can arise in any part of the biliary tree. Surgery is the only curative treatment for CCA, but only ∼30% of patients present with resectable disease. The remaining 70% of patients present with advanced or metastatic disease and, if eligible, undergo systemic chemotherapy with the first-line combination of gemcitabine and cisplatin. This combination was shown in a phase II clinical trial to significantly increase median survival from 8.1 to 11.7 months, compared to gemcitabine alone. In order to improve on current treatment, pre-clinical evaluation of novel therapeutics is essential to improving outcome. Unfortunately, the paucity of data describing characteristics common to CCA make development of targeted therapy difficult. However, as is true for other types of solid tumors, c-Myc expression likely contributes to CCA phenotype: c-Myc expression has been observed in 95% of CCA tumors, and experimental down-regulation of c-Myc decreases the invasive potential of CCA cells in vitro. Recently it has become possible to inhibit expression of c-Myc using BET inhibitors. Therefore, we evaluated the efficacy of the bromodomain (BET) inhibitor JQ1 using in vivo models of CCA. The five patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of CCA that we developed are the first such models to be reported. These models retain the heterogeneity, architecture and specific genetic characteristics of the primary tumors from which they were derived. We used three of these models to examine whether the BET inhibitor JQ1 inhibited CCA tumor growth and generated expression profiles of vehicle- and drug-treated tumors. We administered 50 mg/kg of JQ1 i.p. daily for 20 days and monitored tumor growth. This treatment regimen was well tolerated by tumor-bearing mice, without apparent toxicity. Our data demonstrate that JQ1 suppressed tumor growth in two of the three models, compared to vehicle control treated mice. The data also showed that JQ1-treated tumors had lower levels of c-Myc RNA (↓5-fold) and protein and of RNA encoding multiple transcriptional targets downstream of this oncogenic transcription factor. We conclude that BET inhibitors such as JQ1 warrant further investigation as potentially effective drugs for the treatment of CCA. Citation Format: Patrick L. Garcia, Aubrey L. Miller, Kelly Kreitzburg, Tracy L. Gamblin, Leona N. Council, John D. Christein, Pablo Arnoletti, Marty Heslin, Sushanth Reddy, Joseph H. Richardson, Eddy S. Yang, Jun Qi, James E. Bradner, Karina J. Yoon. Bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 inhibits cholangiocarcinoma tumor growth in patient-derived xenograft models. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 1779. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-1779

Abstract 4612: JQ1 suppresses tumor growth in tumorgraft models of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), the most common form of pancreatic cancer, is one of the most deadly of malignancies. Patients often present late in the course of disease limiting treatment options, with the majority of patients receiving chemotherapy. However, currently available chemotherapy has not impacted overall patient survival, and new therapies are urgently needed. Recently, our lab has documented that tumorgrafts derived specifically from primary PDAC tumors retain characteristics of the tumors of origin. In terms of drug evaluation, tumorgraft models have been shown to be predictive of clinical utility because these models retain tumor heterogeneity, recapitulate tumor architecture, and contain human stroma. To date, most efforts to use tumorgraft models to identify effective agents for the treatment of PDAC have taken an “all comers approach”; but this approach has thus far identified no effective therapies. We proposed that JQ1, a compound that targets the oncogene c-Myc, would be efficacious for the treatment of PDAC, based on molecular characteristics of these tumors. The oncogene c-Myc is amplified or overexpressed in a 30-45% of primary or metastatic PDAC tumors. Also, overexpression of this oncogene is sufficient to induce tumor formation in a genetically engineered mouse model of PDAC, suggesting a critical role in the tumorigenesis of this tumor type. JQ1 is a novel compound in that it is a relatively specific bromodomain inhibitor. Bromodomain containing proteins recognize acetylated lysine residues on histones and direct the assembly of macromolecular molecules to the chromatin for transcription. A specific subfamily of these proteins, known as BETs (bromodomain and extra-terminal), recruit c-Myc to specific sites for transcription. Exposure of PDAC cells to JQ1 decreases the expression and therefore the activity of c-Myc. To test the effectiveness of JQ1 in vivo, we administered 50 mg/kg of JQ1 i.p. once a day for 28 days and monitored tumor growth in a panel of 5 PDAC tumorgraft models. This dose and schedule of JQ1 administration was well tolerated in mice with no significant toxicity. Our data indicate that JQ1 suppressed tumor growth in all 5 models, compared to vehicle control treated mice. The data also showed a modest, JQ1-induced down regulation of c-Myc and NFkB. We conclude that JQ1 and other bromodomain inhibitors warrant further investigation as potentially effective agents for the treatment of PDAC. This work was supported by UAB/UMN SPORE in pancreatic cancer (P50 CA101955). Citation Format: Patrick L. Garcia, Tracy Gamblin, Leona N. Council, John D. Christein, J. Pablo Arnoletti, Martin J. Heslin, Joseph H. Richardson, Jun Qi, Jay E. Bradner, Karina J. Yoon. JQ1 suppresses tumor growth in tumorgraft models of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 4612. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-4612