Patrick R. Thomas

Test of performance strategies: Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes' psychological skills

We report the initial stages of validation of the 64-item Test of Performance Strategies, a self-report instrument designed to measure the psychological skills and strategies used by athletes in competition and during practice. Data were obtained from a sample of 472 athletes competing across a range of performance standards in a wide variety of sports. Exploratory factor analyses of their responses produced eight competition strategy subscales and eight practice strategy subscales, each consisting of four items. Internal consistencies of the subscales ranged from 0.66 to 0.81 (x = 0.75). Correlations among strategies were examined within and between performance contexts. Subgroups defined by age, sex and current standard of performance in sport differed significantly in their psychological skills and strategies.

Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty-first century

Abstract At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there are 30,000 golf courses and 55 million people who play golf worldwide. In the USA alone, the value of golf club memberships sold in the 1990s was US

Motor Imagery Training Ameliorates Motor Clumsiness in Children

3.2 billion. Underpinning this significant human activity is a wide variety of people researching and applying science to sustain and develop the game. The 11 golf science disciplines recognized by the World Scientific Congress of Golf have reported 311 papers at four world congresses since 1990. Additionally, scientific papers have been published in discipline-specific peer-reviewed journals, research has been sponsored by the two governing bodies of golf, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews and the United States Golf Association, and confidential research is undertaken by commercial companies, especially equipment manufacturers. This paper reviews much of this human endeavour and points the way forward for future research into golf.

The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder

Children with impaired motor coordination (or developmental coordination disorder) have difficulty representing internally the visuospatial coordinates of intended movements. We have proposed that this deficit reflects impairment in the generation of forward models of the efference copy of intended movements―the efference-copy-deficit hypothesis. In this study, we challenged this hypothesis by examining the efficacy of an imagery intervention designed specifically to train the forward modeling of purposive actions. A pre-post design was adopted. Fifty-four children referred with motor coordination problems were assigned randomly to one of three groups: imagery training, traditional perceptual-motor training, and wait-list control. The imagery protocol―delivered by an interactive CD―ROM―was shown to be equally effective to perceptual-motor training in facilitating the development of motor skill in the referred children. These results support the efference-copy-deficit hypothesis in explaining the cause of motor clumsiness in most children. Directions for future intervention studies and remediation in the field of developmental clumsiness are discussed. (J Child Neurol 2002;17:491-498).

The relationship between skill level and patterns in cardiac and respiratory activity during golf putting

The present study examined motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Specifically, it explored whether children with varying degrees of motor impairment differed in their ability to perform motor imagery tasks. Fourty-two children scoring below the 15th percentile on the Movement ABC were split into two groups--DCD severe (DCD-S), scoring on or below the 5th percentile, and DCD mild (DCD-M), scoring from the 6th to 15th percentiles--and compared to 21 age matched controls. Participants performed two motor imagery tasks--hand (performed without and with specific imagery instructions) and whole-body rotation. The results demonstrated that children in the DCD-S group had a generalized motor imagery deficit in that they were less accurate across tasks than controls (and the DCD-M group on the hand task) and showed little benefit when given specific imagery instructions. The DCD-M group appeared capable of performing simpler motor imagery transformations, but were less successful as task complexity increased. Unlike the DCD-S group, the DCD-M group did show some benefit from specific imagery instructions with increases in accuracy on the hand task. These results suggest that a motor imagery deficit does exist in many children with DCD but that its presentation can vary--factors such as the individual childs level of motor impairment and task complexity appear to be linked to the profile of deficits observed, which could explain the inconsistent findings of previous studies. Although this study lends support to the theory that a deficit in internal modeling is an underlying problem for children with DCD, still more research is required to develop the theory further.

Upper limb virtual rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury: Initial evaluation of the elements system

Individual differences in skill level during sport-related motor tasks, such as golf putting, can be related to not only performance, but also patterns in psychophysiological activity. The present study examined the similarities and differences in cardiac and respiratory activity among elite, experienced, and novice golfers. Participants attempted flat putts 2.4 m from the hole. Performance was better in elite and experienced golfers than in novice golfers. Compared to novice golfers, the experienced and elite golfers showed a pronounced phasic deceleration in heart rate immediately prior to the putt, greater heart rate variability in the very low frequency band, and a greater tendency to show a respiratory pattern of exhaling immediately prior to the putt. The psychophysiological patterns may be related to differences in attentional processes or task familiarity between the groups. The implications of the results for the assessment and training of athletes in precision sports are discussed.

A virtual tabletop workspace for the assessment of upper limb function in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Primary objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of a tabletop virtual-reality (VR) based upper-limb rehabilitation system (called Elements) for promoting movement skill in patients with TBI. Research design: An ABA case study design with multiple baselines was employed. Baseline performance in this design is contrasted against the results during the treatment phase. Research methods: Three patients with TBI participated in 12 1-hour sessions of VR-based training. The VR system consisted of a 42-inch tabletop LCD, camera tracking system and tangible user interface. The system requires participants to move an object to cued locations while receiving augmented movement feedback to reinforce speed, trajectory and placement. Upper limb performance was assessed using these three system-measured variables and standardized tests. Trends in the time-sequence plots for each patient were assessed by sight inspection of smoothed data and then by statistical analyses. Results: Participants demonstrated improvements on movement accuracy, efficiency and bimanual dexterity and mixed improvement on speed and other measures of movement skill. Conclusion: Taken together, the findings demonstrate that the Elements system shows promise in facilitating motor learning in these TBI patients. Larger scale trials are now deemed a viable step in further validating the system.

Upper-limb virtual rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury: A preliminary within-group evaluation of the elements system

Traditional methods of movement assessment in clinical rehab are often labor intensive and provide a limited number of outcome variables for tracking recovery. Entry level virtual reality (VR) systems afford new possibilities for systematic assessment and treatment. This paper describes the development of a virtual tabletop environment for the assessment of upper limb function in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). The system is designed to present realistic virtual workspaces and to measure performance at both a functional and kinematic level. In addition, we incorporate the use of Tangible User Interfaces (TUIs) as a means of integrating performance with the workspace. Unlike top-end movement analysis systems, the experimental system utilizes readily available computing technologies: mid-range PC, LCD panels, stereo camera, Virtools software, and TUI enabled by Wii Remote, Wii Sensor Bar (Nintendo¿) and passive markers. The combination of vision-based marker tracking with a low cost game controller (viz Wii system) provides a stable and accurate means of tracking the TUI on the virtual workspace, and for interactivity within this space. The system provides a compelling sense of realism for the performer and an innovative means of assessing movement capabilities over time.

Psychological and psychomotor skills associated with prowess at ten‐pin bowling

Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of the Elements virtual reality (VR) system for rehabilitation of upper-limb function in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Methods: Using a within-group design, patients were tested three times, each 4 weeks apart: Pre-intervention 1 and 2 and Post-intervention. During intervention, participants received 12 1-hour training sessions over 4 weeks in addition to their usual care. Five males and four females aged 18–48 years with severe TBI were recruited. The Elements system consisted of a 100-cm tabletop LCD, camera tracking system, tangible user interfaces (i.e. graspable objects of basic shape) and software. The system provided two modes of interaction with augmented feedback: goal-directed and exploratory. Upper-limb performance was assessed using system-rated measures (movement speed, accuracy and efficiency) and standardized tests. Results: Planned comparisons revealed little change in performance over the pre-test period apart from an increase in movement speed. There were significant training effects, with large effect sizes on all measures except the nuts-and-bolts task. Conclusions: These preliminary findings support the results of an early case study of the Elements system, further demonstrating that VR training is a viable adjunct to conventional physical therapy in facilitating motor learning in patients with TBI.

Motor imagery training enhances motor skill in children with DCD: A replication study

Psychological and psychomotor skills associated with prowess at ten-pin bowling were identified through factor analysis of ratings provided by 172 bowlers (87 males, 85 females) across a range of current averages (a measure based on recent performance in competition). Skilled bowlers (current average of 170 pins or more) differed significantly from less skilled bowlers (current average of less than 135 pins) on seven component skills. They demonstrated greater mental toughness, a higher degree of planning and evaluation, greater consistency, more interest in improvement, less use of luck attributions, more confidence in equipment and technique, and greater competitiveness. Since men and women of the same overall standard (current average) have similar component skill profiles, ten-pin bowling is a gender-neutral sport. Older bowlers (45-79 years) matched by current average with younger bowlers (16-30 years) differed significantly on only one component, level of commitment. We discuss several contexts for use of the three self-report assessment scales (measures of psychological skills, psychomotor skills and involvement in bowling) developed in this study.