Paul Dargusch

Climate-smart agriculture: perspectives and framings

ABSTRACT This paper offers a systematic analysis of the concepts and contexts that frame the climate-smart agriculture (CSA) discourse in the academic and policy literature. Documents (n = 113) related to CSA and published in peer-reviewed journals, books, working papers, and scientific reports from 2004 to 2016 were reviewed. Three key trends emerged from the analysis: studies are biased towards global policy agendas; research focuses on scientific and technical issues; and the integration of mitigation, adaptation, and food security (the three pillars of CSA) is becoming a popular scholarly solution. Findings suggest that CSA is a fairly new concept used to describe a range of adaptation and mitigation practices without a specific set of criteria. Although CSA is often framed around the three pillars, the underlying issues constructing the discourse differ at global, developing, and developed country scales. Although there is increasing research on developing countries, particularly in relation to how CSA can transform smallholder agriculture, there is a paucity of research documenting the experiences from developed countries. The findings suggest that research on CSA needs to move beyond solely focussing on scientific approaches and only in certain geographical contexts. If CSA is to be applicable for farmers across the globe, then cross-disciplinary research that is underpinned by broad socio-economic and political contexts is essential to understand how differences in narratives might affect implementation on-the-ground in both developing and developed countries. POLICY RELEVANCE Although policy makers are increasingly supportive of the climate-smart agriculture (CSA) approach, the rhetoric has largely been developed on the basis of scientific and technical arguments. The political implications of varying perspectives have resulted in a growing divide between how developing and developed countries frame solutions to the impacts of climate change on agriculture under the 2015 Paris Agreement. Different framings are part of the explanation for why the scope of CSA is being rethought, with the scientific community redirecting attention to seeking a separate work programme under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The current policy framing of CSA will give no new policy direction unless it grounds itself in the smallholder farmer and civil society contexts.

A review of the drivers of 200 years of wetland degradation in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam

This paper examines the anthropogenic factors that have contributed to wetland loss and degradation in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam from 1816 AD to present. Our analysis is framed over five historical periods and highlights the role that seven drivers of wetland degradation have played in the Mekong Delta, including: resettlement and economic development policies; population growth and urbanization; demand for food and reclaiming wetland for agriculture; construction of canals construction of dykes flood protection systems; expansion of travel systems (waterway and roads); and exploitation of wetland natural resources. Of these, government policies for resettlement and economic development seem to have had the greatest impact on wetland loss and degradation in the Mekong Delta throughout the course of history. As a result of these factors, only 0.068 million hectares of the original 4.0 million hectares of the Mekong Delta currently remains as primary swamp forest ecosystem. History suggests that future management of the Mekong Delta should take a holistic approach that includes a better understanding of the implications of past decisions on wetland loss.

A Small-Scale Forestry Perspective on Constraints to Including REDD in International Carbon Markets

In this article the authors contend that the constraints to including reduced emissions from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation in international carbon markets stem from problems associated with: (1) correctly measuring emissions savings from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation; (2) the permanence and ‘leakage’ of tropical forest conservation regimes; (3) ensuring economic incentives for the avoidance of tropical forest deforestation and degradation are sufficiently effective; (4) the exclusion of reduced emissions from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation from critical international climate change policy agreements; and (5) the behaviour of investors in carbon markets. Case analysis of the ‘Emissions Biodiversity Exchange Project for the 21st Century’ (EBEX21) program of Landcare Research New Zealand is used to examine how a government-supported market-based forest conservation initiative can be used to address these constraints, particularly in the context of small-scale forestry conservation.

Implementing REDD+ in Papua New Guinea: Can biodiversity indicators be effectively integrated in PNG's National Forest Inventory?

UNFCCCs “Cancun safeguards” (COP 16, 2010) provide a strong call for comprehensive steps to prevent harm to biodiversity from Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) activities and to support its conservation. However, as non-binding “principles” and due to their general wording, they are not operational in the present form. Additionally, the scientific literature on biodiversity monitoring for REDD+ is still very limited, particularly when it comes to REDD+ in tropical forests and at the national scale. Whereas some authors suggest that biodiversity integration can be achieved by means of standardised protocols and techniques, others consider that an effective monitoring of biodiversity in tropical forests at the national scale may be an impossible task to achieve in a cost-effective way. However, recent research offers some functional approaches to tackle the many challenges involved. This paper explores the perspectives and limits of developing and effectively incorporating appropriate biodiversity objectives and indicators in Papua New Guineas multipurpose National Forest Inventory (PNGs NFI). The PNGs NFI is currently being designed under the UN-REDD programme as a key component of the National Forest Monitoring System that PNG is required to establish in order to participate in a future REDD+ mechanism. We conclude that the challenge cannot be effectively tackled only at the design stage of the NFI, as it needs to address a number of issues related to different stages of the REDD+ preparedness process: If biodiversity integration is carried out directly at the NFI stage, it will need to rely on proxies derived from indicators designed to monitor carbon stock change; At the planning stage, a carbon–biodiversity overlay map analysis would allow for a preliminary selection of areas of high biodiversity that could be threatened by REDD+ activities either directly or indirectly through “leakage”; During the implementation stage, the selection could be refined by identifying a sub-sample of sites where forests are undergoing the greatest changes; A comprehensive biodiversity monitoring programme involving field measurements of key species could only be designed once the priority areas have been clearly defined and limited in both number and size.

Expanding woodland regeneration on marginal Southern Queensland pastures using market-based instruments: A landowners' perspective

Interviews with private landowners are used to identify important constraints on how market-based instruments can be used to expand woodland regeneration on marginal pastures in the southern Queensland region of Australia. Landowners highlighted three types of constraints: those related to the uncertainty over what rules will govern a mandatory carbon trading scheme in Australia; those related to how landowners can measure and sell their carbon credits; and those related to whether the initiative will be profitable for landowners. Case analysis of the ‘Emissions Biodiversity Exchange Project for the 21st Century’ (EBEX21) program of Landcare Research New Zealand are then used to reveal ways in which similar constraints have been successfully addressed in the context of marginal pastures in New Zealand. The EBEX21 program demonstrates how a government policy initiative can provide support to landowners by: (1) informing landowners about carbon trading opportunities; (2) ensuring satisfactory regeneration of woodlands (including the use of appropriate practices for fire and livestock exclusion and pest and weed management); (3) helping landowners measure and verify their carbon credits; and (4) providing a transparent system (through carboNZero) for landowners to engage with potential buyers of carbon credits.

An assessment of potential responses of Melaleuca genus to global climate change

The genus Melaleuca consists of around 260 species covering over eight million hectares (including native and introduced species) and distributed mostly in Australia, but also occurring in South-East Asia, the Southern United States and the Caribbean. Melaleuca populations predominantly occur in wetland or/and coastal ecosystems where they have been significantly affected by climate change. This paper assesses the potential responses of the Melaleuca genus to climate change, based on the synthesis of worldwide published data. The main findings include: (i) that the Melaleuca genus has a rich species diversity, and significant phenotypic diversity in a variety of ecosystems; (ii) they demonstrate significant local adaptation to harsh conditions; and (iii) the fossil records and taxon biology indicate the evolution of the Melaleuca genus began around 38 million years ago and they have survived several significant climatic alterations, particularly a shift towards cooler and drier climates that has occurred over this period. These findings show that the Melaleuca genus is highly resilient and adaptable and based on this, this paper argues that Melaleuca can adapt to climate change through Wright’s ‘migrational adaptation’, and can be managed to achieve sustainable benefits.

Understandings of Sustainable Corporate Governance by Australian Managed Investment Schemes and Some Implications for Small-scale Forestry in Australia

This study reveals that managers of Australian managed investment schemes understand sustainable corporate governance as a mix of financial, natural environment and social outcomes. A number of managers who were interviewed prioritized financial aspects of business performance but acknowledged that sustained financial performance is only possible if positive natural environment outcomes and positive social outcomes are also sustained. In this context, the managers expressed qualified support for the development of small-scale forestry in Australia. Some implications of these findings for small-scale forestry in Australia are discussed, including how opportunities exist for small-scale forestry proponents to collaborate with firms that operate managed investment schemes to lobby governments for further policy support that assists the sustainable development of both sectors.

Introduction to Special Issue: A Typology of Environmental Markets

This article introduces this special issue on environmental markets with a typology of environmental markets that can be used by environmental management professionals to help organise and understand some of the issues relevant to working in such markets involved with managing environmental problems. The typology comprises five types of markets: (Type 1) trading systems that allow participants to determine the most cost-effective and efficient manner to achieve a targeted environmental objective; (Type 2) investment schemes that attract, and often manage, investments that have some type of credentials for making positive contributions towards the management of environmental problems; (Type 3) certification schemes that have credentials for making positive contributions towards the management of environmental problems; (Type 4) products that serve as alternatives to products that are environmentally problematic; and (Type 5) products and services that directly work to ameliorate and/or reduce risks associated with environmental problems. This article discusses issues that characterise these different types of environmental markets.

Opportunities for Small-Scale Forestry in Carbon Markets

This paper presents an explanatory framework of how greenhouse gas emissions offsets produced from natural and planted forests (‘carbon forestry’) feature in voluntary and regulated carbon markets. An introduction to the convoluted policy malaise surrounding the use of forests in regulated carbon markets is also presented. Whilst there are many opportunities and potential benefits of using forests to produce offsets, relatively few carbon forestry projects currently exist, particularly in regulated carbon markets. This seems due to financial, institutional and administrative obstacles, with prohibitive transaction costs often cited as the most prominent constraint to expanded carbon forestry development. The papers in this special issue present a wide coverage of carbon forestry development policy issues. The special issue provides a unique insight into the state of carbon forestry globally and highlights the pressing need for policy and market reform to facilitate more sustainable carbon forestry development.

A review of research on forest-related environmental markets (including certification schemes, bioenergy, carbon markets and other ecosystem services)

This review analyses the major themes extant across 199 research articles published in various peer-reviewed forestry and economics journals between January 2002 and June 2009 on the topic of forest-related environmental markets. The reviewed articles are categorized according to four areas of research: forest stewardship and sustainable supply chain certification; renewable energy generation from woody biomass; forest-based greenhouse gas emissions offsets and carbon markets; and ecosystem services from forests. Two key research questions are identified for future research: (1) how can certification schemes be used to promote ecologically and socially sustainable bioenergy generation from forest-related feed stocks and (2) how can certification schemes be used to promote ecologically and socially sustainable afforestation-based greenhouse gas emissions offsets that offer broader social and ecosystem benefits on appropriate regional scales?