Paul Davies

Alpha-Synuclein Is a Cellular Ferrireductase

α-synuclein (αS) is a cellular protein mostly known for the association of its aggregated forms with a variety of diseases that include Parkinsons disease and Dementia with Lewy Bodies. While the role of αS in disease is well documented there is currently no agreement on the physiological function of the normal isoform of the protein. Here we provide strong evidence that αS is a cellular ferrireductase, responsible for reducing iron (III) to bio available iron (II). The recombinant form of the protein has a VMax of 2.72 nmols/min/mg and Km 23 µM. This activity is also evident in lysates from neuronal cell lines overexpressing αS. This activity is dependent on copper bound to αS as a cofactor and NADH as an electron donor. Overexpression of α-synuclein by cells significantly increases the percentage of iron (II) in cells. The common disease mutations associated with increased susceptibility to PD show differences in activity or iron (II) levels. This discovery may well provide new therapeutic targets for PD and Lewy body dementias.

The chemistry of copper binding to PrP : is there sufficient evidence to elucidate a role for copper in protein function?

There has been an enormous body of literature published in the last 10 years concerning copper and PrP (prion protein). Despite this, there is still no generally accepted role for copper in the function of PrP or any real consensus as to how and to what affinity copper associates with the protein. The present review attempts to look at all the evidence for the chemistry, co-ordination and affinity of copper binding to PrP, and then looks at what effect this has on the protein. We then connect this evidence with possible roles for PrP when bound to copper. No clear conclusions can be made from the available data, but it is clear from the present review what aspects of copper association with PrP need to be re-investigated.

The cellular prion protein traps Alzheimer's Aβ in an oligomeric form and disassembles amyloid fibers

There is now strong evidence to show that the presence of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) mediates amyloid‐β (Aβ) neurotoxicity in Alzheimers disease (AD). Here, we probe the molecular details of the interaction between PrPC and Aβ and discover that substoichiometric amounts of PrPC, as little as 1/20, relative to Aβ will strongly inhibit amyloid fibril formation. This effect is specific to the unstructured N‐terminal domain of PrPC. Electron microscopy indicates PrPC is able to trap Aβ in an oligomeric form. Unlike fibers, this oligomeric Aβ contains antiparallel β sheet and binds to a oligomer specific conformational antibody. Our NMR studies show that a specific region of PrPC, notably residues 95–113, binds to Aβ oligomers, but only once Aβ misfolds. The ability of PrPC to trap and concentrate Aβ in an oligomeric form and disassemble mature fibers suggests a mechanism by which PrPC might confer Aβ toxicity in AD, as oligomers are thought to be the toxic form of Aβ. Identification of a specific recognition site on PrPC that traps Aβ in an oligomeric form is potentially a therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimers disease.—Younan, N. D., Sarell, C. J., Davies, P., Brown, D. R., Viles, J. H. The cellular prion protein traps Alzheimers Aβ in an oligomeric form and disassembles amyloid fibers. FASEB J. 27, 1847–1858 (2013). www.fasebj.org

Determination of chiral pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in wastewater and sludge using microwave assisted extraction, solid-phase extraction and chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.

This is the first study presenting a multi-residue method allowing for comprehensive analysis of several chiral pharmacologically active compounds (cPACs) including beta-blockers, antidepressants and amphetamines in wastewater and digested sludge at the enantiomeric level. Analysis of both the liquid and solid matrices within wastewater treatment is crucial to being able to carry out mass balance within these systems. The method developed comprises filtration, microwave assisted extraction and solid phase extraction followed by chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to analyse the enantiomers of 18 compounds within all three matrices. The method was successfully validated for 10 compounds within all three matrices (amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, MDA, venlafaxine, desmethylvenlafaxine, citalopram, metoprolol, propranolol and sotalol), 7 compounds validated for the liquid matrices only (mirtazapine, salbutamol, fluoxetine, desmethylcitalopram, atenolol, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine) and 1 compound (alprenolol) passing the criteria for solid samples only. The method was then applied to wastewater samples; cPACs were found at concentration ranges in liquid matrices of: 1.7 ng L(-1) (metoprolol) - 1321 ng L(-1) (tramadol) in influent, <LOD (desmethylcitalopram and metoprolol) - 506 ng L(-1) in effluent, and in solid matrix digested sludge: 0.4 ng g(-1) (metoprolol) - 275 ng g(-1) (citalopram). Enantiomeric profiling revealed that studied compounds were present in analysed samples in non-racemic composition. Furthermore, enantiomeric composition of studied analytes differed in liquid and solid matrices. This demonstrates that not analysing the solid fraction of wastewater may lead to over-estimation of the removal rates of cPACs as well as possible misrepresentation of the enantiomeric fraction of the compounds as they leave the wastewater treatment plant. Consequently risks from cPACs entering the environment might be higher than anticipated.

Early Onset Prion Disease from Octarepeat Expansion Correlates with Copper Binding Properties

Insertional mutations leading to expansion of the octarepeat domain of the prion protein (PrP) are directly linked to prion disease. While normal PrP has four PHGGGWGQ octapeptide segments in its flexible N-terminal domain, expanded forms may have up to nine additional octapeptide inserts. The type of prion disease segregates with the degree of expansion. With up to four extra octarepeats, the average onset age is above 60 years, whereas five to nine extra octarepeats results in an average onset age between 30 and 40 years, a difference of almost three decades. In wild-type PrP, the octarepeat domain takes up copper (Cu2+) and is considered essential for in vivo function. Work from our lab demonstrates that the copper coordination mode depends on the precise ratio of Cu2+ to protein. At low Cu2+ levels, coordination involves histidine side chains from adjacent octarepeats, whereas at high levels each repeat takes up a single copper ion through interactions with the histidine side chain and neighboring backbone amides. Here we use both octarepeat constructs and recombinant PrP to examine how copper coordination modes are influenced by octarepeat expansion. We find that there is little change in affinity or coordination mode populations for octarepeat domains with up to seven segments (three inserts). However, domains with eight or nine total repeats (four or five inserts) become energetically arrested in the multi-histidine coordination mode, as dictated by higher copper uptake capacity and also by increased binding affinity. We next pooled all published cases of human prion disease resulting from octarepeat expansion and find remarkable agreement between the sudden length-dependent change in copper coordination and onset age. Together, these findings suggest that either loss of PrP copper-dependent function or loss of copper-mediated protection against PrP polymerization makes a significant contribution to early onset prion disease.

Manganese Enhances Prion Protein Survival in Model Soils and Increases Prion Infectivity to Cells

Prion diseases are considered to be transmissible. The existence of sporadic forms of prion diseases such as scrapie implies an environmental source for the infectious agent. This would suggest that under certain conditions the prion protein, the accepted agent of transmission, can survive in the environment. We have developed a novel technique to extract the prion protein from soil matrices. Previous studies have suggested that environmental manganese is a possible risk factor for prion diseases. We have shown that exposure to manganese is a soil matrix causes a dramatic increase in prion protein survival (∼10 fold) over a two year period. We have also shown that manganese increases infectivity of mouse passaged scrapie to culture cells by 2 logs. These results clearly verify that manganese is a risk factor for both the survival of the infectious agent in the environment and its transmissibility.

Copper(II)-induced secondary structure changes and reduced folding stability of the prion protein.

The cellular isoform of the prion protein PrP(C) is a Cu(2)(+)-binding cell surface glycoprotein that, when misfolded, is responsible for a range of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. As changes in PrP(C) conformation are intimately linked with disease pathogenesis, the effect of Cu(2+) ions on the structure and stability of the protein has been investigated. Urea unfolding studies indicate that Cu(2+) ions destabilise the native fold of PrP(C). The midpoint of the unfolding transition is reduced by 0.73 ± 0.07 M urea in the presence of 1 mol equiv of Cu(2+). This equates to an appreciable difference in free energy of unfolding (2.02 ± 0.05 kJ mol(-1) at the midpoint of unfolding). We relate Cu(2)(+)-induced changes in secondary structure for full-length PrP(23-231) to smaller Cu(2)(+) binding fragments. In particular, Cu(2+)-induced structural changes can directly be attributed to Cu(2+) binding to the octarepeat region of PrP(C). Furthermore, a β-sheet-like transition that is observed when Cu ions are bound to the amyloidogenic fragment of PrP (residues 90-126) is due only to local Cu(2+) coordination to the individual binding sites centred at His95 and His110. Cu(2+) binding does not directly generate a β-sheet conformation within PrP(C); however, Cu(2+) ions do destabilise the native fold of PrP(C) and may make the transition to a misfolded state more favourable.

Methionine oxidation perturbs the structural core of the prion protein and suggests a generic misfolding pathway

Background: Oxidation and protein misfolding are fundamental to prion diseases. Results: Oxidation generates a monomeric, helical, and molten globule followed by a β-conformation that lacks a cooperative fold. Conclusion: Oxidation of the prion protein destabilizes its native fold and shares a common misfolding pathway to amyloid fibers. Significance: The misfolding may explain the high levels of oxidized methionine in scrapie isolates. Oxidative stress and misfolding of the prion protein (PrPC) are fundamental to prion diseases. We have therefore probed the effect of oxidation on the structure and stability of PrPC. Urea unfolding studies indicate that H2O2 oxidation reduces the thermodynamic stability of PrPC by as much as 9 kJ/mol. 1H-15N NMR studies indicate methionine oxidation perturbs key hydrophobic residues on one face of helix-C as follows: Met-205, Val-209, and Met-212 together with residues Val-160 and Tyr-156. These hydrophobic residues pack together and form the structured core of the protein, stabilizing its ternary structure. Copper-catalyzed oxidation of PrPC causes a more significant alteration of the structure, generating a monomeric molten globule species that retains its native helical content. Further copper-catalyzed oxidation promotes extended β-strand structures that lack a cooperative fold. This transition from the helical molten globule to β-conformation has striking similarities to a misfolding intermediate generated at low pH. PrP may therefore share a generic misfolding pathway to amyloid fibers, irrespective of the conditions promoting misfolding. Our observations support the hypothesis that oxidation of PrP destabilizes the native fold of PrPC, facilitating the transition to PrPSc. This study gives a structural and thermodynamic explanation for the high levels of oxidized methionine in scrapie isolates.

Surround optical fiber immunoassay (SOFIA): an ultra-sensitive assay for prion protein detection.

We describe the development of a new technology (SOFIA) and demonstrate its utility by establishing a sensitive and specific assay for PrP(Sc). SOFIA is a surround optical fiber immunoassay which is comprised of a set of specific monoclonal antibodies and comprehensive capture of high energy fluorescence emission. In its current format, this system is capable of detecting less than 10 attogram (ag) of hamster, sheep and deer recombinant PrP. Approximately 10 ag of PrP(Sc) from 263 K-infected hamster brains can be detected with similar lower limits of PrP(Sc) detection from the brains of scrapie-infected sheep and deer infected with chronic wasting disease. These detection limits allow protease treated and untreated material to be diluted beyond the point where PrP(C), non-specific proteins or other extraneous material may interfere with PrP(Sc) signal detection and/or specificity. This not only eliminates the issue of specificity of PrP(Sc) detection but also increases sensitivity since the possibility of partial PrP(Sc) proteolysis is no longer a concern. SOFIA will likely lead to early antemortem detection of transmissible encephalopathies and is also amenable for use with additional target amplification protocols. SOFIA represents a sensitive means for detecting specific proteins involved in disease pathogenesis and/or diagnosis that extends beyond the scope of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.

Ancient conserved domain protein-1 binds copper and modifies its retention in cells

The ancient conserved domain protein (ACDP) family are a recently identified group of homologous mammalian proteins. Some family members have been suggested to have roles in the metabolism of metals. We investigated the capacity of ACDP‐1 to bind metals. Using immobilised metal affinity chromatography and isothermal titration calorimetry we determined that ACDP‐1 is a high affinity copper binding protein able to bind copper at nanomolar concentrations. In addition the promoter of ACDP‐1 contains metal response elements and the cellular expression of ACDP‐1 alters cellular retention of copper. However, cellular expression of ACDP‐1 does not alter cellular resistance to the toxicity of copper or other metals. As our findings place the subcellular localisation of ACDP‐1 in the cytoplasm it is possible that ACDP‐1 represent a novel copper chaperone or storage protein.