Paul De Knop

A Conceptual Framework for Analysing Sports Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success

Abstract Although an increasing number of nations invest large amounts of money in sport in order to compete against other nations, there is no clear evidence that demonstrates how sports policies can influence international sporting success. This paper provides an overview of important determinants that can lead to nations enjoying international sporting success. The literature reveals that more than 50% of the determinants of success are macro-level variables that are beyond the control of politicians. The meso-level contains factors that can be influenced by sports policies. An empirically founded theory on the policy factors that determine elite sporting success has not yet been developed. In this paper a conceptual framework will be presented that can be used for making trans-national comparisons of elite sports policies. Nine policy areas, or ‘pillars’, that are thought to have an important influence on international sporting success are logically derived from the literature.

Gay/Lesbian Sport Clubs and Events Places of Homo-Social Bonding and Cultural Resistance?

Over the last two decades the founding of sport clubs and organization of sport events specifically for gays and lesbians has increased in the Netherlands and most other western countries. For many policy-makers the popularity of playing sport ‘apart’ seems to be in contradiction to current liberal legislation concerning homosexuality and gay and lesbian rights. Gay/lesbian sport clubs and events like the Gay Games, which took place in Amsterdam in 1998 and Sydney in 2002, raise questions about the social integrative meanings and functions of sport. In this article different, often tenuous and ambiguous, integrative meanings are discussed in relation to mainstream and gay and lesbian sport clubs and events.

Asian Martial Arts and Approaches of Instruction in Physical Education

Asian Martial Arts and Approaches of Instruction in Physical Education Abstract During the last three decades, Asian martial arts have become popular in the West. In recent years, there has also been an interest in incorporating martial arts into the physical education curriculum. Although three different approaches of Asian martial arts practice can be distinguished (i.e., traditional, efficiency, and sporting), martial arts instruction in physical education is often limited to one approach and usually includes only one specific discipline. The present paper describes the most important characteristics of various Asian martial arts disciplines and discusses the use of different approaches of instruction in physical education.

Martial arts and socially vulnerable youth. An analysis of Flemish initiatives

Notwithstanding the lack of empirical support for its positive socio-psychological effects, numerous educators and welfare workers make use of martial arts in their work with socially vulnerable youth. Using qualitative methodology, the aims, approaches and personal experiences were analysed of teachers and co-ordinators involved in specific martial arts programmes (n=12) for disadvantaged youth in Flanders (Belgium). Results revealed that although all respondents were very positive with regard to the effects of their programmes on the youngsters they work with, most would not regard these as different from the effects resulting from regular participation in sport or other social activities. Martial arts were selected because of their specific attraction to youth. Findings also showed that great importance was attached to the type of guidance used.

Community sports development for socially deprived groups: a wider role for the commercial sports sector? A look at the Flemish situation

Since the early 1990s, specific community sports programmes have been set up in Flanders (Belgium) to stimulate participation among socially deprived groups. With only a limited involvement of the traditional sports sector, alternative providers (e.g. youth welfare sector) became active in organizing local initiatives, such as neighbourhood sports. However, despite the multiplicity of sports providers, to date, inequalities in sports participation still exist. The present paper investigates whether or not the commercial sports sector can contribute in developing a sustainable community sports offering for socially deprived youth. Based on examples regarding its involvement in so-called ‘street sports’, it is argued that the commercial sector entered the domain of community sports providers by using highly accessible activities for this youth. It is yet to be determined if, and under which circumstances, this involvement offers opportunities for a wider role of the commercial sports sector in community sports development.

Effectiveness of National Elite Sport Policies: A Multidimensional Approach Applied to the Case of Flanders

Abstract While the results of nations in international sport competitions are most often used as an evaluation of effectiveness of elite sport policies, they do not take into account the long-term duration of an athletic career, nor the many confounding variables influencing international success. This paper argues that output evaluation is a one-sided approach to policy assessment. It applies a multidimensional approach to the measurement of the effectiveness of elite sports policy evaluation (meso-level) by examining a four-year cycle of elite sport policies in Flanders. This study endeavors to advance the development of a framework to assess effectiveness of elite sport policies of nations. Data were collected at multiple points of the input-throughput-output and feedback cycle. It was found that in spite of the increasing elite sport expenditures in Flanders (inputs), and notwithstanding the development of the throughputs (processes), this has not as yet lead to acceptable results (outputs) at an international level.

An Analysis of the Development of Wushu

Wushu, the collective phrase for the Chinese martial arts, is one of the most prominent traditional sports in China. Many other Asian martial arts (e.g. judo, karate) have originated from it. Apart from its wide variety of fighting techniques, wushu incorporates ancient Chinese philosophical concepts and religious elements. This paper analyses some of the prominent changes that have occurred in the form, content and functions of wushu throughout Chinese history. Wushus development has been distinctly influenced by changes that took place in Chinese society at large. During several periods in history, Chinas rulers have used wushu as a political instrument, thereby attributing specific functions to its practice (e.g. safeguarding public order; maintaining and developing physical abilities and fitness; promoting Chinas unity and prestige; strengthening the dominant ideology).

Experiences of children in martial arts

Abstract Contrasting images seem to appear regarding the effect of martial arts involvement in general and with regard to youth in particular. On the one hand, there are several reports referring to medical and moral concerns with a focus on assumed negative effects to personal and social well-being. On the other hand, there is a common belief that martial arts practice is associated with positive socio-psychological outcomes. To date, conclusive evidence regarding the effect of martial arts remains scarce, as not all research findings point in the same direction. In addition, little is known about the way children experience their martial arts involvement. Through the use of a qualitative research methodology, 40 children between the age of eight and twelve years in five different martial arts were interviewed in-depth regarding their experiences and views on participation motives, training, competition and behaviour. In general, findings seem to support the relationship between martial arts practice and positive socio-psychological responses. It is concluded that analysing the experiences of children in martial arts should take different approaches of martial arts practice into account.

Development of a relevant quality system for gymnastics clubs: an application of the principles of total quality and service management in traditionally organised sport

To many scholars and practitioners, the introduction of service and quality management is necessary to revitalise the traditional sport system. This paper proposes a framework for analysis of quality in gymnastics clubs. The Total Quality Management (TQM) model is based on the evaluation-by-standards approach with appropriate standards of quality according to different concepts in order to monitor the adequate and desired inputs and outputs of each distinctive management and service process. The development of these standards is based on the interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data obtained from primary and existing sources. An attempt is made to capture the quality of these organisations in their totality while involving different stakeholders to obtain satisfactory information about several targets of quality evaluation. The operational quality system is now being used by the Federation for the certification of its well-functioning clubs.

The Role of Contextual Factors in Youth Participation in Organized Sport

The participation of youth in organized sport can be regarded as an established aspect of society. The present article reflects on organized youth sport in Flanders – a setting which can be regarded as typical of the western European context. The different sectors of the Flemish organizational youth sport network, in which sport can be regarded as an ‘aim’ or as a ‘means’, are described in terms of structural characteristics and participatory trends. As youth involvement does not occur in a social vacuum, developments and changes in society in general – and in organized sports in particular – have an influence on how youngsters come to participate and remain in organized sport activities. The influence of four major developments and changes (i.e. demographic, socioeconomic, sociopsychological, sport-related) is discussed. It is concluded that a concerted and quality-based youth sport approach is necessary to deal with the different developments that influence organized sport in today’s western European society.