Paul Downward

The economics of professional team sports

1:Introduction Section A: The Market, Industry and Firm Professional Team Sports 2: The Market Structure of Professional Sports Leagues: General Themes 3: The Market Struture of Professional Sport Leagues: The Firm in Professional Team Sports 4:Cross-Subsidisation in Professional Team Sports Leagues Section B: The Demand for Professional Team Sports 5: The Demand for Professional Team Sports: Theoretical and Empirical Issues 6: The Demand for Professional Team Sports: Traditional findings and new Developments 7: The Demand for Professional Team Sports and the Uncertainty of Outcome Hypothesis: Theoretical and Empirical Issues 8: Broadcast Demand and the Impact of Television on Professional Team Sports Section C: The Labour Market in Professional Team Sports 9: The Traditional view of Sports Labour Markets: Theory and Evidence 10: Recent Developments in Sporting Labour Markets: Theory and Evidence 11: Conclusions.

Exploring the Economic Choice to Participate in Sport: Results from the 2002 General Household Survey

Abstract This article explores the decision to participate in sports activities in the United Kingdom using a qualitative choice framework. The consistency of the results with neoclassical theories of leisure, and heterodox economic theory, which embraces a psychological view of decision making and structure of demand, is assessed. Finding more support for the latter perspective, the implications of this for sports policy are discussed.

Health or Happiness? What is the Impact of Physical Activity on the Individual?

This paper models the effect that physical activity such as sports participation and active travel, through walking and cycling, has on self-reported health and well-being. The results show that physical activity and active travel mainly have a positive effect on both individual health and well-being. Although, cycling has health benefits, it also appears to involve some disutility, which requires further investigation.

Tourism Transport and Visitor Spending: A Study in the North York Moors National Park, UK

Understanding the determinants of day visitor spending is key to marketing planning at many visitor attractions and destinations. In a recent study of a small-scale rural destination in the United Kingdom, the findings suggested that group visitation coupled with duration of stay were key determinants of spending. This article explores the robustness of these findings in a different context, the relationship between mode of travel and spending. This study suggests that there is a difference in the pattern of visitor spending between carborne and public transport visitors, with car-based visitors spending higher amounts. The level of expenditure varies according to group size and duration of day visit, an important consideration for planners seeking to encourage a modal switch of visitors in national parks.

The demand for day-visits: an analysis of visitor spending.

A tourism destination comprises a number of elements and features, which combine to attract staying or day visitation or, in some cases, transitory visitors. Various factors which determine the degree of attractiveness of any place promoted for tourism purposes have, in recent years, been the subject of more detailed analysis. However, studies have concentrated primarily on pre-trip motivational factors, destination selection, imagery and levels of visitor satisfaction. Within the context of visitor management studies the emphasis has been placed on the quality of the physical environment. In contrast, there has been little discussion on visitor spending at a destination level, and the consequent marketing implications for tourism practitioners following from this type of analysis. This paper presents the findings of a study of day visitors to Cheddar, a small-scale, well-known inland destination in the UK. The authors conclude that while market attractors are important in encouraging visitation, the level of spending at the destination is very closely related to duration of stay and composition of party; a number of implications are drawn for those responsible for marketing destinations.

Beyond the demand for day-visits: an analysis of visitor spending.

A review of the literature indicates a gap in the research on visitor spending at a destination level, and thus a lack of awareness of the marketing implications for tourism practitioners that such research could identify. In a previous study the authors concluded that, in the case of day-visits, while market attractions were important in encouraging visitation the level of spending at the destination was very closely related to the duration of the stay and the composition of the party. In this paper the analysis is extended to short-break and longer-stay holidays at a rural destination in the UK. Confirmation of these basic determinants of spending are presented, coupled with the importance of income. The current research thus provides a bridge between day-visit activity and models of holiday spending.

Does sport make you happy? An analysis of the well‐being derived from sports participation

This paper examines the impact of sports participation upon the subjective well‐being of individuals. Encouraging participation in sports activity is now an important public policy issue, as it is argued that there are benefits in terms of health and well‐being to individuals as well as to society through externalities. Controlling for personal and socio‐demographic characteristics affecting well‐being, this paper examines if participation in, and the frequency and duration of, 67 sports activities affects well‐being. The form in which sports participation takes place is also investigated by examining if social‐interaction sports produce more well‐being. This paper demonstrates that sports participation has a positive affect upon the subjective well‐being of the population and, moreover, estimates its monetary value. The effects are larger if one allows for social interactions.

The Relative Demands for Sports and Leisure in England

Abstract This paper contributes to an emergent but growing literature, which is focusing on large-scale data analysis of mass participation sport. Distinct from the existing literature, a model is proposed in which sport demand is examined relative to the demand for other leisure, a structure suggested by micro-economic theory. Based on new data for England, which has been collected by the government department responsible for policy promoting Sport, Media and Culture, it is shown that the demand for sports is dependent upon the demand for leisure for the activities defined by the data collection exercise. This qualifies the existing literature and has implications for current policy.

The Sports Development Potential of Sports Event Volunteering: Insights from the XVII Manchester Commonwealth Games

Abstract The sports development implications of investment in major sports events are not well researched, in contrast to an examination of the economic impacts of events. A sample of volunteers at the XVII Manchester Commonwealth is explored to identify how experience of volunteering at a major sports event affects interest, participation and subsequent volunteering in sport, and also volunteering in non-sport contexts. Factor analysis is employed to summarize volunteer experiences, and then regression analysis, which controls for differences in the sports and socio-economic characteristics. While there is some evidence that volunteering at a major event can raise interest, participation and volunteering in sport generally, capitalizing upon this will require focusing efforts on particular triggers for change. There appears to be much stronger potential opportunity to generate wider social capital than necessarily produce changes associated with sport.

Effects of crowd size on referee decisions: analysis of the FA Cup.

Abstract Data were collected on the number of first yellow cards awarded during 857 games, over six seasons (1996 – 2002), played in the Football Association (FA) Cup. Overall, a significantly higher number of yellow cards were awarded against the away team, while a non-linear relationship between crowd size and yellow cards was observed. In general, the probability of a yellow card being awarded against the home team decreased as crowd size increased, but was attenuated for the largest crowd sizes. Crowd size may be related to the probability of the home team receiving a yellow card in two potential ways. Crowd noise may be a decision-making heuristic whereby the likelihood that an incident is a foul is increased when accompanied by crowd noise. Alternatively, referees may seek to appease the crowd and are more likely to do so as crowd size increases. The present findings have implications for the training of match officials and for coaches and players as they prepare to play away from home.