Paul F. Ziemkiewicz

Survival and Growth of Hardwoods in Brown versus Gray Sandstone on a Surface Mine in West Virginia

Surface mining in West Virginia removes the eastern deciduous forest and reclaiming the mined land to a productive forest must consider soil depth, soil physical and chemical properties, soil compaction, ground cover competition, and tree species selection. Our objective was to evaluate tree survival and growth in weathered brown sandstone and in unweathered gray sandstone. Brown and gray sandstone are often substituted when insufficient native topsoil is available for replacement. Three 2.8-ha plots were constructed with either 1.5 or 1.2 m of brown sandstone, or 1.5 m of gray sandstone at the surface. Half of each plot was compacted with a large dozer. Percent fines (<2 mm) in the upper 20 cm was 61% for brown sandstone and 34% in gray. Brown sandstones pH was 5.1, while gray sandstones pH was around 8.0. In March 2005, 2-yr-old seedlings of 11 hardwood species were planted. After 3 yr, tree survival was 86% on 1.5-m gray sandstone, 67% on 1.5-m brown sandstone, and 82% on 1.2-m brown sandstone. Survival was 78% on noncompacted and 79% on compacted areas. Average volume of all trees (height x diameter(2)) was significantly greater on brown sandstone (218 cm(3)) than gray sandstone (45 cm(3)) after 3 yr. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) had the highest survival (100%) and significantly greater volume (792 cm(3)) than all other tree species. Survival of the other 10 species varied between 65% for tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) and 92% for redbud (Cercis canadensis L.), and volume varied between 36 cm(3) for white pine (Pinus strobes L.) and 175 cm(3) for tulip poplar. After 3 yr, brown sandstone appears to be a better topsoil material due to the much greater growth of trees, but tree growth over time as these topsoils weather will determine whether these trends continue.

Landscape indicators and thresholds of stream ecological impairment in an intensively mined Appalachian watershed

Abstract Coal-mine development is occurring at a rapid rate in the central Appalachians, but few tools exist to assess the consequences of cumulative effects of mining to downstream aquatic resources. We constructed and applied an index of mining intensity (MI) to the Lower Cheat River basin, northern West Virginia. Our objectives were to: 1) determine if the MI could be used to predict stream-water quality and biological conditions, 2) quantify the extent to which geology and the geographic position of mines modulate the effects of mining on in-stream conditions, and 3) identify thresholds of MI that produce quantifiable changes to benthic macroinvertebrate communities. We quantified water chemistry, habitat quality, and benthic macroinvertebrate communities from May 2002 to May 2003 in 39 stream segments randomly distributed across a range of MI, coal geology, elevation, and watershed area. We sampled benthic macroinvertebrates at an additional 41 validation sites in May 2002. The MI was positively correlated with dissolved metals (r  =  0.65–0.85) and negatively correlated with ecological condition metrics (r  =  0.49–0.78), including total richness, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera richness, and the West Virginia Stream Condition Index. Coal geology and distance from mining had a significant interactive effect on benthic macroinvertebrate responses. Streams draining watersheds with Freeport coal geology had significantly poorer water quality and ecological condition than streams draining watersheds with similar MI but with Kittanning coal geology. Mining effects on stream conditions diminished as distance from the nearest mining activities upstream increased to a distance of ∼10 km. Changepoint analysis provided evidence of threshold effects of mining on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in Freeport coal watersheds but not in Kittanning coal watersheds. Abrupt reductions in ecological condition occurred at MI values as low as 1 to 5% of maximum intensity, and ecological impairment to streams became almost certain at MI >18 to 20%. Our results provide evidence of an interactive effect of landuse intensity, underlying geology, and the spatial arrangement of disturbance on the degree of impairment to receiving water bodies. The thresholds we identified could be used by water-resource managers to protect and restore stream conditions in actively mined watersheds of the central Appalachian region.

Performance of 116 Passive Treatment Systems for Acid Mine Drainage 1

State and federal reclamation programs, mining operators, and citizen- based watershed organizations have constructed hundreds of passive systems in the eastern United States over the past 20 years to provide reliable, low cost, low maintenance mine water treatment in remote locations. In 2000, we evaluated 116 systems comprised of eight system types in eight states. We revisited 14 of these sites in 2004 to confirm results from the earlier study. Each system was monitored for influent and effluent flow, pH, net acidity, and metal concentrations. Performance was normalized among types by calculating acid load removed, and also by converting construction cost, projected service life, and metric tonnes of acid load treated into cost per tonne of acid treated. Of the 116 systems, 105 reduced acid load (90%). Average acid load reductions were 0.8 t/yr for Ponds; about 9 t/yr for open limestone channels (OLC), anaerobic wetlands (AnW), aerobic wetlands (AeW), and vertical flow wetlands (VFW); 76 t/yr for slag leach beds (SLB), and about 15 t/yr for limestone leach beds (LSB) and anoxic limestone drains (ALD). Average removal rates ranged from 18 to 2,334 g/day/t for the limestone systems, and 1.7 to 87 g/m 2 /day for the Ponds and wetlands. Average costs for acid removal varied from

Review of Passive Systems for Acid Mine Drainage Treatment

36/t/yr for SLB to

Evolution of water chemistry during Marcellus Shale gas development: A case study in West Virginia

1,468/t/yr for Ponds. The 2004 data showed slightly greater removal efficiencies for two Ponds, two VFWs, and one LSB. Large declines in removal were found for one AnW, two VFWs, one ALD, and one OLC. Two OLCs greatly increased efficiency. Most passive systems were effective for >5 yrs, yet there was wide variation in performance within each system type.

Water chemistry‐based classification of streams and implications for restoring mined Appalachian watersheds

When appropriately designed and maintained, passive systems can provide long-term, efficient, and effective treatment for many acid mine drainage (AMD) sources. Passive AMD treatment relies on natural processes to neutralize acidity and to oxidize or reduce and precipitate metal contaminants. Passive treatment is most suitable for small to moderate AMD discharges of appropriate chemistry, but periodic inspection and maintenance plus eventual renovation are generally required. Passive treatment technologies can be separated into biological and geochemical types. Biological passive treatment technologies generally rely on bacterial activity, and may use organic matter to stimulate microbial sulfate reduction and to adsorb contaminants; constructed wetlands, vertical flow wetlands, and bioreactors are all examples. Geochemical systems place alkalinity-generating materials such as limestone in contact with AMD (direct treatment) or with fresh water up-gradient of the AMD. Most passive treatment systems employ multiple methods, often in series, to promote acid neutralization and oxidation and precipitation of the resulting metal flocs. Before selecting an appropriate treatment technology, the AMD conditions and chemistry must be characterized. Flow, acidity and alkalinity, metal, and dissolved oxygen concentrations are critical parameters. This paper reviews the current state of passive system technology development, provides results for various system types, and provides guidance for sizing and effective operation.ZusammenfassungPassive Systeme können über einen langen Zeitraum unterschiedlichste saure Grubenwässer (AMD) effizient und wirksam reinigen, sofern sie sachgerecht geplant und errichtet werden. Die passive Reinigung saurer Grubenwässer beruht auf natürlichen Prozessen der Säureneutralisation, Oxidation oder Reduktion und Ausfällung von metallischen Schadstoffen. Die Anwendung passiver Reinigungssysteme ist besonders geeignet für kleine bis mittlere AMD-Ströme mit entsprechendem Chemismus. Die periodische Überprüfung und Instandhaltung und gegebenfalls Erneuerung sind aber generell notwendig. Die passiven Reinigungstechnologien können in biologische und geochemische Typen eingeteilt werden. Die biologische Reinigung beruht generell auf bakterieller Tätigkeit und kann organisches Material nutzen um beispielsweise die mikrobielle Sulfatreduktion anzuregen und Verunreinigungen zu adsorbieren. Beispiele für biologische Systeme sind Pflanzenkläranlagen, vertikal durchströmte Pflanzenkläranlagen und Bioreaktoren. Geochemische Systeme bringen alkalisch wirkende Stoffe, wie z. B. Kalkstein, in Kontakt mit sauren Grubenwässern (direkte Reinigung) oder mit dem Frischwasseranstrom von sauren Grubenwässern. Die meisten passiven Reinigungssysteme verwenden multiple Methoden, um die Säureneutralisation, Oxidation und Ausfällung von Metallen zu fördern. Bevor ein geeignetes Reinigungssystem gewählt wird, müssen die AMD-Bedingungen sowie der Chemismus charakterisiert werden. Wesentliche Parameter sind der Durchfluss, die Acidität und Alkalinität sowie die Konzentration von Metallen und Sauerstoff. Der vorliegende Artikel bewertet den aktuellen Stand der Entwicklung passiver Systeme, stellt Ergebnisse verschiedener Systemtypen vor und bietet Hilfestellung bei der Dimensionierung und einem erfolgreichen Einsatz solcher Systeme.ResumenLos sistemas pasivos, apropiadamente diseñados y mantenidos, pueden proporcionar un efectivo y eficiente tratamiento, y por largo tiempo, de muchos drenajes ácidos de minas (AMD). Los tratamientos pasivos utilizan procesos naturales para neutralizar la acidez y oxidar o reducir y precipitar los metales contaminantes. Los tratamientos pasivos son más adecuados para pequeñas y moderadas descargas de AMD de química apropiada, pero se requieren generalmente periódicas inspecciones y periódico mantenimiento, más eventuales renovaciones. Las tecnologías pasivas de tratamiento pueden ser separadas entre biológicas y geoquímicas. Las biológicas utilizan la actividad bacteriana y pueden adicionar material orgánico para estimular la reducción microbiana de sulfato y para adsorber los contaminantes; ejemplos estas tecnologías son los humedales artificiales, los humedales de flujo vertical y los biorreactores. Los sistemas geoquímicos utilizan materiales generadores de alcalinidad como la caliza en contacto con AMD (tratamiento directo) o con agua fresca gradiente arriba del AMD. La mayoría de los sistemas de tratamiento pasivo emplean múltiples métodos, frecuentemente en serie, para lograr la neutralización de ácidos y la precipitación de los metales. Antes de seleccionar la tecnología de tratamiento apropiada, se deben caracterizar las condiciones del AMD. Los parámetros críticos son flujo, acidez y alcalinidad y concentraciones de oxígeno disuelto y metales. Este trabajo revisa el actual desarrollo de la tecnología de sistemas pasivos, muestra resultados obtenidos en varios tipos de sistemas y proporciona una guía orientativa sobre el tamaño necesario para una operación efectiva.酸性废水被动处理系统综述

Use of coal combustion by-products in mine reclamation: review of case studies in the USA

Hydraulic fracturing (HF) has been used with horizontal drilling to extract gas and natural gas liquids from source rock such as the Marcellus Shale in the Appalachian Basin. Horizontal drilling and HF generates large volumes of waste water known as flowback. While inorganic ion chemistry has been well characterized, and the general increase in concentration through the flowback is widely recognized, the literature contains little information relative to organic compounds and radionuclides. This study examined the chemical evolution of liquid process and waste streams (including makeup water, HF fluids, and flowback) in four Marcellus Shale gas well sites in north central West Virginia. Concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents and radioactive isotopes were measured to determine changes in waste water chemistry during shale gas development. We found that additives used in fracturing fluid may contribute to some of the constituents (e.g., Fe) found in flowback, but they appear to play a minor role. Time sequence samples collected during flowback indicated increasing concentrations of organic, inorganic and radioactive constituents. Nearly all constituents were found in much higher concentrations in flowback water than in injected HF fluids suggesting that the bulk of constituents originate in the Marcellus Shale formation rather than in the formulation of the injected HF fluids. Liquid wastes such as flowback and produced water, are largely recycled for subsequent fracturing operations. These practices limit environmental exposure to flowback.

Practical measures for reducing the risk of environmental contamination in shale energy production.

We analyzed seasonal water samples from the Cheat and Tygart Valley river basins, West Virginia, USA, in an attempt to classify streams based on water chemistry in this coal-mining region. We also examined temporal variability among water samples. Principal component analysis identified two important dimensions of variation in water chemistry. This variation was determined largely by mining-related factors (elevated metals, sulfates, and conductivity) and an alkalinity-hardness gradient. Cluster analysis grouped water samples into six types that we described as reference, soft, hard, transitional, moderate acid mine drainage, and severe acid mine drainage. These types were statistically distinguishable in multidimensional space. Classification tree analysis confirmed that chemical constituents related to acid mine drainage and acid rain distinguished these six groups. Hard, soft, and severe acid mine drainage type streams were temporally constant compared to streams identified as reference, transitional, and moderate acid mine drainage type, which had a greater tendency to shift to a different water type between seasons. Our research is the first to establish a statistically supported stream classification system in mined watersheds. The results suggest that human-related stressors superimposed on geology are responsible for producing distinct water quality types in this region as opposed to more continuous variation in chemistry that would be expected in an unimpacted setting. These findings provide a basis for simplifying stream monitoring efforts, developing generalized remediation strategies, and identifying specific remediation priorities in mined Appalachian watersheds.

Scenario analysis predicts context-dependent stream response to landuse change in a heavily mined central Appalachian watershed

With the continued use of coal to generate electricity for the worlds power needs, coal combustion by-products (CCPs) will be produced in greater quantities during the ensuing decades. About 130 million tons of CCPs are produced annually from the 600 coal-fired power plants currently operating in the USA, with estimates of 500 million tons produced worldwide. Five major types of CCPs exist: bottom ash; boiler slag; fly ash; fluidized bed ash; flue gas desulfurization ash. Bottom ash does not generally constitute a disposal problem because it is extensively used as aggregate fill material for construction projects, filler in construction materials (wall board and dry wall) and de-icing solids for roads. Boiler slag is used for similar purposes as bottom ash, but it can be used as a glassy grit material for sand blasting. Fly ashes constitute 70% of the by-products generated and these ashes are produced in several ways in a power plant depending on the boiler type and the emission control system employed at the power plant. These fine-textured ash materials may be dry fly ash from conventional coal-fired boilers, dry ashes collected in flue-gas desulfurization or other collection devices (bag houses or scrubber filters), or they may be collected in wet scrubber systems producing a fly ash slurry. Coal combustion by-products can be beneficially used as: (1) an alkaline seal or fill material to contain acid producing materials and to prevent the formation of acid mine drainage; (2) an agricultural amendment to create artificial soil on abandoned mine lands where native soils are not available; (3) an alkaline amendment added to spoils to neutralize acid producing materials in the spoil; (4) a flowable fill that seals and stabilizes abandoned underground mines to prevent subsidence and the production of acid mine drainage (5) a non-toxic fill material for final pits within the spoil area to reduce reclamation costs. Case studies in this paper demonstrate that CCPs can be used to improve reclamation, revegetation and water quality on reclaimed areas. Results to date have shown the effective neutralizing capacity of these ashes and stabilization of reclamation sites.

The Mine Water Leaching Procedure: Evaluating the Environmental Risk of Backfilling Mines with Coal Ash

Gas recovery from shale formations has been made possible by advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technology. Rapid adoption of these methods has created a surge in natural gas production in the United States and increased public concern about its environmental and human health effects. We surveyed the environmental literature relevant to shale gas development and studied over fifteen well sites and impoundments in West Virginia to evaluate pollution caused by air emissions, light and noise during drilling. Our study also characterized liquid and solid waste streams generated by drilling and hydraulic fracturing and evaluated the integrity of impoundments used to store fluids produced by hydraulic fracturing. While most shale gas wells are completed with little or no environmental contamination, we found that many of the problems associated with shale gas development resulted from inattention to accepted engineering practices such as impoundment construction, improper liner installation and a lack of institutional controls. Recommendations are provided based on the literature and our field studies. They will address not all but a great many of the deficiencies that result in environmental release of contaminants from shale gas development. We also identified areas where new technologies are needed to fully address contaminant releases to air and water.