Paul G. Fitchett

A National Perspective on the Effects of High-Stakes Testing and Standardization on Elementary Social Studies Marginalization

The purpose of this study was to explore the nationwide historic trend of elementary social studies marginalization compared to math, science, and language arts. Incorporating 17 years of data from the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) Schools and Staffing Survey, the authors conducted comparative analyses to investigate differences in instructional time between elementary social studies and other core subject areas. In addition, variance of social studies instructional time was examined across grade levels and survey years. The results indicate that social studies instruction has remained a subsidiary part of K-5 curriculum over the last two decades. Moreover, between grade-level analyses shows a trend toward greater attention to social studies in intermediate grades (3–5) compared to primary grades (K-2). A significant decline in social studies instruction coincided with educational policy that places greater importance on mathematics and language arts. The authors conclude that while No Child Left Behind legislation has magnified trends in decreased instructional time for social studies, this federal mandate is not the sole reason for the decline of social studies within elementary curriculum. They argue that the marginalization of social studies is an enduring trend over the last two decades, a byproduct of an educational policy shift toward national standardization.

Examining Elementary Social Studies Marginalization: A Multilevel Model

Utilizing data from the National Center for Education Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), a multilevel model (Hierarchical Linear Model) was developed to examine the association of teacher/classroom and state level indicators on reported elementary social studies instructional time. Findings indicated that state testing policy was a significant predictor of elementary teachers’ reported time spent on social studies instruction. Teachers’ perceptions of workplace autonomy and grade level were also associated with increased time on social studies. Conversely, teacher credentials, classroom socioeconomic contexts, and test design were not substantially associated with social studies instructional time. This study suggests that state policy mandates, grade-specific curricular organization, and teacher disposition have a substantial impact on the prioritization of social studies in US elementary schools.

National Trends in Elementary Instruction: Exploring the Role of Social Studies Curricula

Using data from the National Center for Educational Statistics research spanning fifteen years, researchers examined the impact of national educational policy implementation on the role of social studies in elementary schools. Specifically, with the reauthorization of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2007 and the continuation of federal-mandated testing of English language arts (ELA) and mathematics in grades three through five, researchers sought to understand how policy decisions to extend testing to science affected teacher decisions in regard to instructional time allocations for core subject areas of ELA, mathematics, science, and social studies in elementary schools. Results of this quantitative study offer large-scale evidence of the declining role of social studies in an era in which testing is clearly linked to subject-area importance. Findings provide an overview of the national scope of testing and the ramifications for social studies in elementary schools. Researchers conclude that curriculum standardization, accountability, and high-stakes testing have had adverse affects on social studies time allotments in comparison to tested subjects.

Examining Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy in a Preservice Social Studies Education Course:

In a preexperimental study of preservice practitioners’ professional dispositions, we examined the relationship between an innovative culturally responsive teaching model in a social studies methods course and teacher candidates’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy. Findings indicate preservice teachers exposed to an in-depth culturally responsive teaching epistemology were more confident in their abilities to employ culturally relevant teaching practices. Participants noted increased willingness to work in diverse communities. Preservice teachers were more efficacious in their abilities to teach multicultural social studies content. Our study suggests that a comprehensive culturally responsive, social studies methods course inspired efficacious attitudes toward teaching diverse learners and content.

The New Gateway, an Old Paradox: Immigrants and Involuntary Americans in North Carolina History Textbooks.

Abstract The authors conducted a content analysis of North Carolina history textbooks to explore how the definition of immigration has changed over the last century. They also examined how immigrant groups and involuntary Americans have been portrayed throughout the states history. Findings suggest that as a burgeoning gateway state for immigrants, North Carolinas definition for immigration was slow to evolve and at times contradictory. Moreover, immigrant groups were often presented inaccurately or vaguely. Slavery and Native American conflicts were sanitized in favor of nation building, while texts neglect the lasting consequences of these conflicts. Textbooks from the state symbolically commoditized immigrant groups while ignoring their socio-cultural contributions. The authors discuss implications for textbook publishers, social studies teachers, and teacher education programs.

An Opportunity to Learn US History: What NAEP Data Suggest Regarding the Opportunity Gap.

The purpose of this study is to determine the degree to which Opportunity to Learn (OTL), is associated with students’ achievement in US History. Opportunity to Learn stems from the basic premise that there is an important relationship between the quality and frequency of classroom instruction and students’ levels of academic success. The authors examine National Assessment of Educational Progress in U.S. History (NAEP-USH) assessment data in order to better understand the relationship between classroom- and student-level variables associated with historical knowledge as measured in the 12th grade. Findings document that instructional exposure (OTL) is a factor associated with learning outcomes; however, the OTL in history is not the same for all student populations. An opportunity gap is evident in these results and suggests that Black students are underserved in U.S. History. However, when controlling for poverty and other socio-economic variables, students’ predictive achievement on NAEP is positively associated with instructional exposure; yet, differences were observed for some but not all strategies measured in the full model. In the aggregate and disaggregate models, instructional exposure and motivational factors associated with OTL account for a large and significant percentage of the proportional variance (r2) in NAEP-USH achievement. We contend that instructional exposure is significantly predictor of historical knowledge. Findings from this study indicate: 1) student and school characteristics are significant factors associated with achievement, 2) pedagogical decisions are important and can greatly impact student learning in US History, and 3) culturally congruent instructional decision-making is needed to ensure positive learning experiences for Black students.

Searching for Satisfaction: Black Female Teachers' Workplace Climate and Job Satisfaction.

Job satisfaction may decrease teacher attrition. Furthermore, job satisfaction correlates with teacher retention, which may influence school building climate and student achievement. Potentially affecting students’ progress and seeking to reduce attrition rates among Black teachers, this quantitative study uses data from the 2007-2008 Schools and Staffing Survey to examine Black female teachers’ job satisfaction. Findings suggest that Black female teachers’ have job satisfaction when they are in an urban, non-charter school; receive administrative support; experience positive student behavior; and are committed to teaching. Concluding recommendations are offered for teacher education programs and school leaders.

It Takes Courage: Fostering the Development of Critical, Social Justice-Oriented Teachers Using Museum and Project-Based Instruction.

Through course readings, museum visits, focus group discussions, and reflections on clinical observation experiences, preservice teachers developed a fictitious educational setting (Courage High School) that incorporates critical, social justice practices and privileges the experiences and cultural backgrounds of all K-12 students. Participants presented a model for this school and how it would benefit specific student needs. From our classroom experiences, the authors developed recommendations for how future educators problematized ideas of courage, race, and diversity in developing Courage High School. The authors suggest that using museums as experiential pedagogical tools and offering authentic learning opportunities can encourage a critical, social justice orientation to teaching and may inspire future teachers to enact courage in their teaching practice.

Teaching Genocide through GIS: A Transformative Approach

Abstract The utilization of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and geobrowsers (Google Earth) have become increasingly prevalent in the study of genocide. These applications offer teachers and students the opportunity to analyze historical and contemporary genocidal acts from a critical geographic perspective in which the confluence of historical background, sociocultural perspective, and geospatial context further understanding. We provide three examples of Web-based tools and applications for exploring genocide through geography in a secondary social studies classroom. We then examine these tools through an instructional scaffold of transformative geography. In this practice piece, we propose that teachers and students move beyond the static, pejorative representations of geography to enact dynamic instruction that encourages discourse and social action.

Using Big Data, Large-Scale Studies, Secondary Datasets, and Secondary Data Analysis as Tools to Inform Social Studies Teaching and Learning

Secondary datasets, large-scale studies, and big data are attractive information sources that have the potential to broaden the scope and influence of social studies research. Using large-scale samples and complex sampling frames, secondary datasets offer greater external validity, considerably more variables, and more representative samples than primary data. Other advantages of secondary datasets are accessibility, time and cost savings; however; analyses of these datasets require knowledge of a wide range of statistical methods and modeling. Positioning the value of large datasets in examining the vox populi and the underutilization of large-scale studies and secondary data analysis in social studies, authors discuss possibilities big data offer the field, democratization of data, and repurposing of data. Limitations of working with large-scale datasets and statistical considerations to avoid pitfalls of secondary data analyses are presented. Authors conclude with the potential wisdom of democratic judgment derived from large-scale, data-informed thinking in social studies.