Paul J. Bertics

Epithelial contact guidance on well-defined micro- and nanostructured substrates

The human corneal basement membrane has a rich felt-like surface topography with feature dimensions between 20 nm and 200 nm. On the basis of these findings, we designed lithographically defined substrates to investigate whether nanotopography is a relevant stimulus for human corneal epithelial cells. We found that cells elongated and aligned along patterns of grooves and ridges with feature dimensions as small as 70 nm, whereas on smooth substrates, cells were mostly round. The percentage of aligned cells was constant on substrate tomographies with lateral dimensions ranging from the nano- to the micronscale, and increased with groove depth. The presence of serum in the culture medium resulted in a larger percentage of cells aligning along the topographic patterns than when no serum was added to the basal medium. When present, actin microfilaments and focal adhesions were aligned along the substrate topographies. The width of the focal adhesions was determined by the width of the ridges in the underlying substrate. This work documents that biologic length-scale topographic features that model features encountered in the native basement membrane can profoundly affect epithelial cell behavior.

Endotoxin-Induced Structural Transformations in Liquid Crystalline Droplets

Bacterial lipid A was detected by its interactions with defects in droplet-confined liquid crystals. The ordering of liquid crystals (LCs) is known to be influenced by surfaces and contaminants. Here, we report that picogram per milliliter concentrations of endotoxin in water trigger ordering transitions in micrometer-size LC droplets. The ordering transitions, which occur at surface concentrations of endotoxin that are less than 10−5 Langmuir, are not due to adsorbate-induced changes in the interfacial energy of the LC. The sensitivity of the LC to endotoxin was measured to change by six orders of magnitude with the geometry of the LC (droplet versus slab), supporting the hypothesis that interactions of endotoxin with topological defects in the LC mediate the response of the droplets. The LC ordering transitions depend strongly on glycophospholipid structure and provide new designs for responsive soft matter.

Cutting edge: the nucleotide receptor P2X7 contains multiple protein- and lipid-interaction motifs including a potential binding site for bacterial lipopolysaccharide.

The nucleotide receptor P2X7 has been shown to modulate LPS-induced macrophage production of numerous inflammatory mediators. Although the C-terminal portion of P2X7 is thought to be essential for multiple receptor functions, little is known regarding the structural motifs that lie within this region. We show here that the P2X7 C-terminal domain contains several apparent protein-protein and protein-lipid interaction motifs with potential importance to macrophage signaling and LPS action. Surprisingly, P2X7 also contains a conserved LPS-binding domain. In this report, we demonstrate that peptides derived from this P2X7 sequence bind LPS in vitro. Moreover, these peptides neutralize the ability of LPS to activate the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1, ERK2) and to promote the degradation of the inhibitor of κB-α isoform (IκB-α) in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Collectively, these data suggest that the C-terminal domain of P2X7 may directly coordinate several signal transduction events related to macrophage function and LPS action.

Purinergic Receptor Modulation of Lipopolysaccharide Signaling and Inducible Nitric-oxide Synthase Expression in RAW 264.7 Macrophages

Previous studies have suggested that the P2Z/P2X7 purinergic receptor can participate in nucleotide-induced modulation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated inflammatory mediator production. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated whether antagonism of the P2Z/P2X7 receptor can influence LPS signaling and expression of the inducible form of nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) in RAW 264.7 macrophages. In the present study, we demonstrate that pretreatment of RAW 264.7 macrophages with a P2Z/P2X7 receptor antagonist, periodate oxidized adenosine 5′-triphosphate (o-ATP), substantially inhibits LPS-stimulated NO production and iNOS expression without altering cell viability. This effect on LPS-induced iNOS expression is mimicked by a pyridoxal-phosphate-based antagonist (pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2′,4′-disulfonic acid) of the P2Z/P2X7 purinergic receptor, indicating that these results are not unique to o-ATP. Additionally, o-ATP prevents cell death induced by P2Z/P2X7 receptor agonists. To ascertain how P2Z/P2X7 receptor antagonists influence LPS signaling, we evaluated the capacity of o-ATP to regulate LPS-mediated activation of the transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB, and the mitogen-activated protein kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1 and ERK2. These experiments reveal that pretreatment of RAW 264.7 cells with o-ATP attenuates the LPS stimulation of a nuclear factor-κB-like binding activity. Moreover, the activation of ERK1 and ERK2 by LPS, but not by the phorbol ester, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, is also blocked in RAW 264.7 cells by o-ATP pretreatment. In summary, these data suggest that the P2Z/P2X7 receptor modulates LPS-induced macrophage activation as assessed by iNOS expression and NO production. This report implicates the P2Z/P2X7 receptor in the control of protein kinase cascades and transcriptional processes, and these observations are likely to be important for the development of selective purinergic receptor antagonists for the treatment of septic shock.

The nucleotide receptor P2X7 mediates actin reorganization and membrane blebbing in RAW 264.7 macrophages via p38 MAP kinase and Rho

Extracellular nucleotides regulate macrophage function via P2X nucleotide receptors that form ligand‐gated ion channels. In particular, P2X7 activation is characterized by pore formation, membrane blebbing, and cytokine release. P2X7 is also linked to mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPK) and Rho‐dependent pathways, which are known to affect cytoskeletal structure in other systems. As cytoskeletal function is critical for macrophage behavior, we have tested the importance of these pathways in actin filament reorganization during P2X7 stimulation in RAW 264.7 macrophages. We observed that the P2X7 agonists adenosine 5′‐triphosphate (ATP) and 3′‐O‐(4‐benzoylbenzoyl) ATP (BzATP) stimulated actin reorganization and concomitant membrane blebbing within 5 min. Disruption of actin filaments with cytochalasin D attenuated membrane blebbing but not P2X7‐dependent pore formation or extracellular‐regulated kinase (ERK)1/ERK2 and p38 activation, suggesting that these latter processes do not require intact actin filaments. However, we provide evidence that p38 MAPK and Rho activation but not ERK1/ERK2 activation is important for P2X7‐mediated actin reorganization and membrane blebbing. First, activation of p38 and Rho was detected within 5 min of BzATP treatment, which is coincident with membrane blebbing. Second, the p38 inhibitors SB202190 and SB203580 reduced nucleotide‐induced blebbing and actin reorganization, whereas the MAPK kinase‐1/2 inhibitor U0126, which blocks ERK1/ERK2 activation, had no discernable effect. Third, the Rho‐selective inhibitor C3 exoenzyme and the Rho effector kinase, Rho‐associated coiled‐coil kinase, inhibitor Y‐27632, markedly attenuated BzATP‐stimulated actin reorganization and membrane blebbing. These data support a model wherein p38‐ and Rho‐dependent pathways are critical for P2X7‐dependent actin reorganization and membrane blebbing, thereby facilitating P2X7 involvement in macrophage inflammatory responses.

IL-5 and Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor Activate STAT3 and STAT5 and Promote Pim-1 and Cyclin D3 Protein Expression in Human Eosinophils

Allergic inflammation is characterized by elevated eosinophil numbers and by the increased production of the cytokines IL-5 and GM-CSF, which control several eosinophil functions, including the suppression of apoptosis. The JAK/STAT pathway is important for several functions in hemopoietic cells, including the suppression of apoptosis. We report in this study that STAT3, STAT5a, and STAT5b are expressed in human eosinophils and that their signaling pathways are active following IL-5 or GM-CSF treatment. However, in airway eosinophils, the phosphorylation of STAT5 by IL-5 is reduced, an event that may be related to the reduced expression of the IL-5Rα on airway eosinophils. Furthermore, IL-5 and GM-CSF induced the protein expression of cyclin D3 and the kinase Pim-1, both of which are regulated by STAT-dependent processes in some cell systems. Pim-1 is more abundantly expressed in airway eosinophils than in blood eosinophils. Because Pim-1 reportedly has a role in the modulation of apoptosis, these results suggest that Pim-1 action is linked to the suppression of eosinophil apoptosis by these cytokines. Although cyclin D3 is known to be critical for cell cycle progression, eosinophils are terminally differentiated cells that do not proceed through the cell cycle. Thus, this apparent cytokine regulation of cyclin D3 suggests that there is an alternative role(s) for cyclin D3 in eosinophil biology.

Regional distribution of cytosolic and particulate 5α-dihydroprogesterone 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductases in female rat brain

Numerous studies have indicated that progesterone metabolites, particularly 3alpha,5alpha-tetrahydroprogesterone, can potently influence multiple brain functions, e.g. they have the capacity to mediate gonadotropin regulation and various anticonvulsive, anesthetic and anxiolytic effects. These circulating progesterone metabolites are likely to represent only a fraction of the bioavailable pool of these steroids in that the central nervous system (CNS) also possesses enzymes that can synthesize these metabolites in situ. Therefore, because the ability of the CNS to produce these neuroactive progestins is an important consideration when assessing overall progestin function and metabolism, we measured the major progesterone metabolizing enzyme activities, namely the cytosolic NADPH and particulate NADH 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone 3alpha-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductase (3alpha-HSOR) and progesterone 5alpha-reductase activities in nine brain regions from random cycling and ovariectomized rats. These assays entailed the use of reverse isotopic dilution analysis and revealed that all three enzymic activities were present in each of the brain regions examined, but that these regions displayed differential patterns with regard to their levels of cytosolic and particulate 3alpha-HSOR activity. The cytosolic 3alpha-HSOR activity was highest in the olfactory bulb/tubercle and colliculi regions which were greater than levels in the hypothalamus/preoptic area and cerebellum which were greater than levels in the amygdala/striatum and hippocampus/dentate gyrus. Midbrain/thalamus, cerebral cortex and pons/medulla were different only from the olfactory bulb/tubercle and colliculi regions. The particulate 3alpha-HSOR activity was highest in the olfactory bulb/tubercle region followed by colliculi, hippocampus/dentate gyrus and pons/medulla which were greater than levels in the hypothalamus/preoptic area, cerebellum and amygdala/striatum. Cerebral cortex and midbrain/thalamus were different only from the olfactory bulb/tubercle area. The highest levels of 5alpha-reductase activity were found in the pons/medulla region followed by the colliculi, midbrain/thalamus, cerebellum and olfactory bulb/tubercle which were greater than levels in the amygdala/striatum, hippocampus/dentate gyrus, hypothalamus/preoptic area and cerebral cortex. It is interesting to note that although 5alpha-reductase may control, at least in part, substrate levels for the 3alpha-HSORs, the distribution of 5alpha-reductase activity in these nine brain regions did not correlate with 3alpha-HSOR levels. The differences in the levels of activity of these three enzymes in various brain regions suggests a role in maintaining a differential balance of the neuroactive steroid, 3alpha,5alpha-tetrahydroprogesterone, and its precursor, 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone, in various regions of the CNS.

Integrin-mediated Migration of Murine B82L Fibroblasts Is Dependent on the Expression of an Intact Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

To evaluate the mechanisms by which epidermal growth factor (EGF) regulates actin-based cellular processes such as cell migration, we first examined the effects of EGF on cell adhesion, which is essential for cell migration. In mouse B82L fibroblasts transfected with the full-length EGF receptor, EGF promotes cell rounding and attenuates cell spreading on fibronectin, laminin, and vitronectin, and thus appears to reduce the strength of cell adhesion. Moreover, EGF synergizes with multiple extracellular matrix (ECM) components in the promotion of integrin-mediated cell migration of several different cell types, including fibroblasts and various carcinoma and osteosarcoma cell lines. Interestingly, co-presentation (co-positioning) of EGF with laminin or fibronectin is essential for EGF-stimulated migration. When EGF is mixed with the cells instead of the ECM components, it has little effect on cell migration. These results suggest that co-presentation of EGF with ECM components can enhance the polarization events required for directional cell movement. To identify the EGF receptor elements critical for the EGF stimulation of cell migration, B82L fibroblasts were transfected with either mutated or wild-type EGF receptors. Surprisingly, we found that B82L-Parental cells that lack the EGF receptor are not able to migrate to fibronectin, even though they can adhere to fibronectin. However, the introduction of wild-type EGF receptors into these fibroblasts enables them to migrate toward fibronectin even in the absence of EGF. The requirement of the EGF receptor for cell migration does not appear to result from the secretion of EGF or TGF-α by the cells transfected with the EGF receptor. Furthermore, cells expressing EGF receptors that are kinase-inactive, or C-terminally truncated, exhibit little migration toward fibronectin, indicating that an intact EGF receptor kinase is required for fibronectin-induced cell migration. In addition, neutralizing anti-EGF receptor antibodies attenuate cell migration in the presence of EGF, and inhibit migration to fibronectin or laminin alone. These results further suggest that the EGF receptor is downstream of integrin activation in the signal transduction pathways leading to fibroblast migration.

Kinetics of phosphorylation of Na+K+-ATPase by protein kinase C

The kinetics of phosphorylation of an integral membrane enzyme, Na+/K(+)-ATPase, by calcium- and phospholipid-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) were characterized in vitro. The phosphorylation by PKC occurred on the catalytic alpha-subunit of Na+/K(+)-ATPase in preparations of purified enzyme from dog kidney and duck salt-gland and in preparations of duck salt-gland microsomes. The phosphorylation required calcium (Ka approximately 1.0 microM) and was stimulated by tumor-promoting phorbol ester (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate) in the presence of a low concentration of calcium (0.1 microM). PKC phosphorylation of Na+/K(+)-ATPase was rapid and plateaued within 30 min. The apparent Km of PKC for Na+/K(+)-ATPase as a substrate was 0.5 microM for dog kidney enzyme and 0.3 microM for duck salt-gland enzyme. Apparent substrate inhibition of PKC activity was observed at concentrations of purified salt-gland Na+/K(+)-ATPase greater than 1.0 microM. Phosphorylation of purified kidney and salt-gland Na+/K+ ATPases occurred at both serine and threonine residues. The 32P-phosphopeptide pattern on 15% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis after hydroxylamine cleavage of pure 32P-phosphorylated alpha subunit was the same for the two sources of enzyme, which suggests that the phosphorylation sites are similar. The results indicate that Na+/K(+)-ATPase may serve as a substrate for PKC phosphorylation in intact cells and that the Na+/K(+)-ATPase could be a useful in vitro model substrate for PKC interaction with integral membrane proteins.

Generation of Th1 and Th2 Chemokines by Human Eosinophils: Evidence for a Critical Role of TNF-α

Emerging evidence suggests a role for eosinophils in immune regulation of T cells. Thus, we sought to determine whether human eosinophils may exert their effect via differential generation of Th1 and Th2 chemokines depending on cytokines in their microenvironment and, if so, to establish the conditions under which these chemokines are produced. Eosinophils cultured with TNF-α plus IL-4 had increased mRNA expression and protein secretion of the Th2-type chemokines, CCL17 (thymus and activation-regulated chemokine) and CCL22 (macrophage-derived chemokine). Conversely, the Th1-type chemokines, CXCL9 (monokine induced by IFN-γ) and CXCL10 (IFN-γ-inducible protein-10), were expressed after stimulation with TNF-α plus IFN-γ. Addition of TNF-α appeared to be essential for IFN-γ-induced release of Th1-type chemokines and significantly enhanced IL-4-induced Th2-type chemokines. Inhibition of NF-κB completely blocked the production of both Th1 and Th2 chemokines. Activation of NF-κB, STAT6, and STAT1 was induced in eosinophils by TNF-α, IL-4, and IFN-γ, respectively. However, there was no evidence for enhancement of these signaling events when eosinophils were stimulated with the combination of TNF-α plus IL-4 or TNF-α plus IFN-γ. Thus, independently activated signaling cascades appear to lead to activation of NF-κB, STAT1, and STAT6, which may then cooperate at the promoter level to increase gene transcription. Our data demonstrate that TNF-α is a vital component for eosinophil chemokine generation and that, depending on the cytokines present in their microenvironment, eosinophils can promote either a Th2 or a Th1 immune response, supporting an immunoregulatory role for eosinophils.