Paul Keenan

Card-playing and Gambling in Eighteenth-century Russia

Although gambling was a prominent, not to say infamous, feature of nineteenth-century literary depictions of elite social life, the study of how the social and cultural relevance of certain games developed in the earlier period has been relatively neglected. This article examines the emergence of card-playing as a form of entertainment at the court and amongst the urban elite during the watershed period of the early to mid-eighteenth century as part of a broader engagement with European forms and fashions, catalysed by the reign of Peter I (1689–1725). The emphasis was essentially on the sociable nature of cards, but it was an activity fraught with potential risks for more ‘committed’ players. The Russian state’s role in restricting the potential excesses of any gambling, particularly (but not exclusively) amongst non-elite social groups, reflects the wider European concern about the financial and moral dangers of challenging Fate.

The Russian Imperial Court and Victory Celebrations during the Early Napoleonic Wars

‘There is no place duller but more magnificent than the court of the Russian Emperor.’ While the precise source of this well-known quotation from the early nineteenth century remains vague, it encapsulates an established perception of the Russian court of this period, and subsequently, as glittering but uninteresting. This perception may help to explain the relative paucity of serious academic studies on the court in general, despite the central role of the ruler and the elite in the pre-modern state apparatus. Yet, despite this importance, it took until the late twentieth century for the royal court to become the focus of scholarly attention.1 In the Russian case, scholars of the late imperial period produced significant compilations and archival extracts on the rulers and their courts in the preceding century, but little meaningful analysis.2 However, on the basis of extensive work in Russian archives — now more accessible than ever before — modern scholars have a great deal of previously unused material and can examine the question of the Russian court’s evolution as an institution during its transitionary period in the eighteenth century. For example, Ol’ga Ageeva has produced two complementary monographs, dealing with the Russian court’s ‘Europeanization’ in its titles and regulations, often informed by courtly practices elsewhere, alongside an exhaustive examination of its administration, chief offices and financial affairs.3

Russia and the Napoleonic wars

Russia played a key part in the military campaigns and the ultimate defeat of Napoleon. At the same time the Napoleonic Wars affected almost every aspect of Russian life – economically, politically, socially and ideologically. This volume brings together the most important and new research on Russia and the Napoleonic period by Russian and non-Russian historians. Their work demonstrates why this period is so significant both for internal Russian developments and for an understanding of Russias relationship with Europe. The Wars not only shaped early nineteenth-century Europe but also have a contemporary relevance for understanding Russian perceptions and international relations today.

A Space between Two Worlds: St. Petersburg in the Early Eighteenth Century

In May 1703, Tsar Peter I of Russia is alleged to have led a small military foray to the Baltic coastline, near the mouth of the river Neva. Accounts of this occasion, both contemporary and retrospective, vary considerably on the precise chronology of the decision-making process and the question of whether the tsar himself was actually present.1 Regardless of the precise details, the area was claimed (or, some argue, reclaimed) in the name of Russia and plans were made to build a fortress in order to consolidate the Russian presence.2 This foundation and the associated myths, which have been explored by many writers and historians over the intervening centuries, feature in most discussions of St. Petersburg’s history.3 One such myth, which presents Peter creating his new city out of nothing, in a wilderness, was essentially poetic license on the part of later writers such as Vasilii Trediakovskii and Aleksandr Pushkin.4 In fact, the area was the site of a Swedish fortress known as “Nienschants,” the town of Nien, with a population of around four thousand, and a number of smaller settlements nearby that existed before the city was founded.5 Indeed, given the paucity of usable stone in the region, the ruins of the old fortress likely provided material used in the initial stage of St. Petersburg’s construction, particularly in the foundations of buildings.6

The Function of Fashion: Women and Clothing at the Russian Court (1700–1762)

The concerted effort to introduce European-style clothing by Peter I (1682–1725), beginning in January 1700, has been analysed by a number of historians, who have generally located them within the wider reorientation of Russia during his reign.1 The developments relating to clothing and appearance were significant for a range of reasons. In part, they played an important role in shaping foreign perceptions of Russia and of its place within a wider European cultural sphere, which was firmly established by the second half of the eighteenth century. They also had a major impact on the self-perception of the various groups within Russian society which were affected by the reforms, not least noblewomen, who were included in the newly emerging social life in Moscow and St Petersburg. Whilst there have been a number of excellent discussions of the importance of developments in clothing and fashion in eighteenth-century Russia, the role of elite dress within these social forums has not been adequately examined, and will form the basis of this chapter.2