Paul L. Soto

Preclinical Efficacy of N-Substituted Benztropine Analogs as Antagonists of Methamphetamine Self-Administration in Rats

Atypical dopamine-uptake inhibitors have low abuse potential and may serve as leads for development of cocaine-abuse treatments. Among them, the benztropine (BZT) derivatives, N-butyl (JHW007), N-allyl (AHN2-005), and N-methyl (AHN1-055) analogs of 3α-[bis(4′-fluorophenyl)methoxy]-tropane dose-dependently decreased cocaine self-administration without effects on food-maintained responding. Our study examined selectivity by assessing their effects on self-administration of other drugs. As with cocaine, each BZT analog (1.0–10.0 mg/kg i.p.) dose-dependently decreased maximal self-administration of d-methamphetamine (0.01–0.32 mg/kg/infusion) but was inactive against heroin (1.0–32.0 µg/kg/infusion) and ketamine (0.032–1.0 mg/kg/infusion) self-administration. Further, standard dopamine indirect-agonists [WIN35,428 ((−)-3β-(4-fluorophenyl)-tropan-2-β-carboxylic acid methyl ester tartrate), d-amphetamine (0.1–1.0 mg/kg i.p., each)] dose-dependently left-shifted self-administration dose-effect curves for d-methamphetamine, heroin, and ketamine. Noncompetitive NMDA-glutamate receptor/channel antagonists [(+)-MK-801 (0.01–0.1 mg/kg i.p.), memantine (1.0–10.0 mg/kg i.p.)] also left-shifted dose-effect curves for d-methamphetamine and ketamine (but not heroin) self-administration. The µ-agonists [dl-methadone and morphine (1.0–10.0 mg/kg i.p., each)] dose-dependently decreased maximal self-administration of µ-agonists (heroin, remifentanil) but not d-methamphetamine or ketamine self-administration. The µ-agonist-induced decreases were similar to the effects of BZT analogs on stimulant self-administration and effects of food prefeeding on responding maintained by food reinforcement. Radioligand-binding and behavioral studies suggested that inhibition of dopamine transporters and σ receptors were critical for blocking stimulant self-administration by BZT-analogs. Thus, the present results suggest that the effects of BZT analogs on stimulant self-administration are similar to effects of µ-agonists on µ-agonist self-administration and food prefeeding on food-reinforced responding, which implicates behavioral mechanisms for these effects and further supports development of atypical dopamine uptake inhibitors as medications for stimulant abuse.

Long-Term Exposure to Oral Methylphenidate or dl-Amphetamine Mixture in Peri-Adolescent Rhesus Monkeys: Effects on Physiology, Behavior, and Dopamine System Development

The stimulants methylphenidate and amphetamine are used to treat children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder over important developmental periods, prompting concerns regarding possible long-term health impact. This study assessed the effects of such a regimen in male, peri-adolescent rhesus monkeys on a variety of cognitive/behavioral, physiological, and in vivo neurochemical imaging parameters. Twice daily (0900 and 1200 hours), for a total of 18 months, juvenile male monkeys (8 per group) consumed either an unadulterated orange-flavored solution, a methylphenidate solution, or a dl-amphetamine mixture. Doses were titrated to reach blood/plasma levels comparable to therapeutic levels in children. [11C]MPH and [11C]raclopride dynamic PET scans were performed to image dopamine transporter and D2-like receptors, respectively. Binding potential (BPND), an index of tracer-specific binding, and amphetamine-induced changes in BPND of [11C]raclopride were estimated by kinetic modeling. There were no consistent differences among groups on the vast majority of measures, including cognitive (psychomotor speed, timing, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility), general activity, physiological (body weight, head circumference, crown-to-rump length), and neurochemical (ie, developmental changes in dopamine transporter, dopamine D2 receptor density, and amphetamine-stimulated dopamine release were as expected). Cytogenetic studies indicated that neither drug was a clastogen in rhesus monkeys. Thus, methylphenidate and amphetamine at therapeutic blood/plasma levels during peri-adolescence in non-human primates have little effect on physiological or behavioral/cognitive development.

Self-Administration of Cocaine Induces Dopamine-Independent Self-Administration of Sigma Agonists

Sigma1 receptors (σ1Rs) are intracellularly mobile chaperone proteins implicated in several disease processes, as well as psychiatric disorders and substance abuse. Here we report that although selective σ1R agonists (PRE-084, (+)-pentazocine) lacked reinforcing effects in drug-naive rats, over the course of 28 experimental sessions, which was more than sufficient for acquisition of cocaine self-administration, responding was not maintained by either σ1R agonist. In contrast, after subjects self-administered cocaine σ1R agonists were readily self-administered. The induced reinforcing effects were long lasting; a response for which subjects had no history of reinforcement was newly conditioned with both σ1R agonists, extinguished when injections were discontinued, and reconditioned when σ1R agonists again followed responses. Experience with food reinforcement was ineffective as an inducer of σ1R agonist reinforcement. Although a variety of dopamine receptor antagonists blocked cocaine self-administration, consistent with its dopaminergic mechanism, PRE-084 self-administration was entirely insensitive to these drugs. Conversely, the σR antagonist, BD1063, blocked PRE-084 self-administration but was inactive against cocaine. In microdialysis studies i.v. PRE-084 did not significantly stimulate dopamine at doses that were self-administered in rats either with or without a cocaine self-administration experience. The results indicate that cocaine experience induces reinforcing effects of previously inactive σ1R agonists, and that the mechanism underlying these reinforcing effects is dopamine independent. It is further suggested that induced σ1R mechanisms may have an essential role in treatment-resistant stimulant abuse, suggesting new approaches for the development of effective medications for stimulant abuse.

Stimulants as Specific Inducers of Dopamine-Independent σ Agonist Self-Administration in Rats

A previous study showed that cocaine self-administration induced dopamine-independent reinforcing effects of σ agonists mediated by their selective actions at σ1 receptors (σ1Rs), which are intracellularly mobile chaperone proteins implicated in abuse-related effects of stimulants. The present study assessed whether the induction was specific to self-administration of cocaine. Rats were trained to self-administer the dopamine releaser, d-methamphetamine (0.01–0.32 mg/kg per injection), the μ-opioid receptor agonist, heroin (0.001–0.032 mg/kg per injection), and the noncompetitive N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor/channel antagonist ketamine (0.032–1.0 mg/kg per injection). As with cocaine, self-administration of d-methamphetamine induced reinforcing effects of the selective σ1R agonists PRE-084 [2-(4-morpholinethyl)1-phenylcyclohexanecarboxylate hydrochloride] and (+)-pentazocine (0.032–1.0 mg/kg per injection, each). In contrast, neither self-administration of heroin nor ketamine induced PRE-084 or (+)-pentazocine (0.032–10 mg/kg per injection, each) self-administration. Although the σ1R agonists did not maintain responding in subjects with histories of heroin or ketamine self-administration, substitution for those drugs was obtained with appropriate agonists (e.g., remifentanil, 0.1–3.2 µg/kg per injection, for heroin and (5S,10R)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine ((+)-MK 801; dizocilpine), 0.32–10.0 µg/kg per injection, for ketamine). The σR antagonist N-[2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]-N-methyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)ethylamine dihydrobromide (BD 1008; 1.0–10 mg/kg) dose-dependently blocked PRE-084 self-administration but was inactive against d-methamphetamine, heroin, and ketamine. In contrast, PRE-084 self-administration was affected neither by the dopamine receptor antagonist (+)-butaclamol (10–100 μg/kg) nor by the opioid antagonist (−)-naltrexone (1.0–10 mg/kg), whereas these antagonists were active against d-methamphetamine and heroin self-administration, respectively. The results indicate that experience specifically with indirect-acting dopamine agonists induces reinforcing effects of previously inactive σ1R agonists. It is further suggested that induced σ1R reinforcing mechanisms may play an essential role in treatment-resistant stimulant abuse, suggesting new approaches for the development of effective medications for its treatment.

Lack of cocaine-like discriminative-stimulus effects of σ-receptor agonists in rats.

Previous studies demonstrated the effectiveness of selective &sgr;-receptor (&sgr;R) agonists [1,3-di-o-tolylguanidine (DTG), PRE-084] as reinforcers in rats trained to self-administer cocaine. Similar to cocaine, these drugs increased nucleus accumbens shell dopamine levels, and effects of DTG, but not PRE-084, on dopamine seemed to be mediated by &sgr;Rs. In addition, &sgr;R antagonists blocked self-administration of &sgr;R agonists, but were inactive against reinforcing and neurochemical effects of cocaine. Thus, pharmacologically distinct mechanisms likely underlie the reinforcing and neurochemical effects of &sgr;R agonists and cocaine. This study further examined the cocaine-like effects of &sgr;R agonists in rats trained to discriminate injections of cocaine from saline to assess the similarity of their subjective effects. Standard dopamine-uptake inhibitors (WIN 35 428, methylphenidate), but neither &sgr;R agonist (PRE-084, DTG), produced full cocaine-like discriminative-stimulus effects. The lack of effects of &sgr;R agonists was obtained regardless of route of administration (intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, or intravenous) or pretreatment time (5 or 30 min before sessions). The present results demonstrate differences in the discriminative-stimulus effects of cocaine and selective &sgr;R agonists, indicating that an overlap of subjective effects is not necessary for &sgr;R agonist self-administration. The previously found differences in neurochemical effects of cocaine and &sgr;R agonists may contribute to their different subjective effects.

Herrnstein's hyperbolic matching equation and behavioral pharmacology: review and critique

Behavioral pharmacologists have enlisted Herrnsteins (1970) hyperbolic matching equation to understand the behavioral effects of drugs. Herrnsteins hyperbola describes the relation between absolute response rate and reinforcement rate. The equation has two fitted parameters. The parameter k represents the asymptotic response rate, and the parameter re represents the reinforcement rate necessary to obtain half the asymptotic response rate. According to one interpretation of the equation, changes in k should reflect changes in response or motoric variables, and changes in re should reflect changes in reinforcer or motivational variables, or changes in reinforcement from sources extraneous to the instrumental response. We review research that has applied Herrnsteins equation to distinguish the motoric from the motivational effects of drugs, and to identify additional independent variables responsible for drug effects, such as extraneous reinforcement. The validity of inferences about drug effects depends on the consistency of how k and re respond to environmental manipulations: k should change only with response or motoric variables, and re should change with reinforcer or motivational variables and with the rate of extraneous reinforcement. Empirical tests of these predictions, however, have produced inconsistent results. The review suggests that Herrnsteins theory has not fulfilled its promise of identifying the behavioral mechanisms of drug action. Modifications to the equation, known as bias and sensitivity, may explain some of these inconsistent results, and the modified equation may have utility in behavioral pharmacology.

Allosteric Modulation of GABAA Receptor Subtypes: Effects on Visual Recognition and Visuospatial Working Memory in Rhesus Monkeys

Non-selective positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) are known to impair anterograde memory. The role of the various GABAAR subtypes in the memory-impairing effects of non-selective GABAAR PAMs has not been fully elucidated. The current study assessed, in rhesus monkeys, effects of modulation of α1, α2/3, and α5GABAARs on visual recognition and spatial working memory using delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) and self-ordered spatial search (SOSS) procedures, respectively. The DMTS procedure (n=8) involved selecting a previously presented ‘sample’ image from a set of multiple images presented after a delay. The SOSS procedure (n=6) involved touching a number of boxes without repeats. The non-selective GABAAR PAM triazolam and the α1GABAA preferential PAMS zolpidem and zaleplon reduced accuracy in both procedures, whereas the α5GABAA preferential PAMs SH-053-2′F-R-CH3 and SH-053-2′F-S-CH3, and the α2/3GABAA preferential PAM TPA023B were without effects on accuracy or trial completion. The low-efficacy α5GABAAR negative allosteric modulator (NAM) PWZ-029 slightly increased only DMTS accuracy, whereas the high-efficacy α5GABAAR NAMs RY-23 and RY-24 did not affect accuracy under either procedure. Finally, the slopes of the accuracy dose-effect curves for triazolam, zolpidem, and zaleplon increased with box number in the SOSS procedure, but were equivalent across DMTS delays. The present results suggest that (1) α1GABAARs, compared with α2/3 and α5GABAARs, are primarily involved in the impairment, by non-selective GABAAR PAMs, of visual recognition and visuospatial working memory in nonhuman primates; and (2) relative cognitive impairment produced by positive modulation of GABAARs increases with number of locations to be remembered, but not with the delay for remembering.

Behavioral Economics of Food Reinforcement and the Effects of Prefeeding, Extinction, and Eticlopride in Dopamine D2 Receptor Mutant Mice

RationaleSeveral studies have investigated the reinforcing effects of food in genetically engineered mice lacking dopamine D2 receptors (DA D2Rs); however, behavioral economic analyses quantifying reinforcement have not been conducted.ObjectiveThe role of DA D2Rs in food reinforcement was examined by comparing responding under various fixed-ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement, and effects of extinction, satiation, and the DA D2R antagonist eticlopride, in mice with and without genetic deletions of the receptor.ResultsResponse rates of DA D2R knockout (KO) mice were generally lower than those of littermate wild-type (WT) and heterozygous (HET) mice. The demand curve (consumption vs. FR value) for KO mice decreased more steeply than that of HET or WT mice, suggesting that reinforcing effectiveness is decreased with DA D2R deletion. Prefeeding decreased, whereas extinction increased overall response rates as a proportion of baseline, with no significant genotype differences. Both (+)- and (−)-eticlopride dose-dependently decreased responding in all genotypes with (−)-eticlopride more potent than (+)-eticlopride in all but KO mice. The enantiomers were equipotent in KO mice, and similar in potency to (+)-eticlopride in WT and HET mice.ConclusionsThat prefeeding and extinction did not vary across genotypes indicates a lack of involvement of DA D2Rs in these processes. Differences between (−)-eticlopride effects and extinction indicate that DA D2R blockade does not mimic extinction. The maintenance of responding in KO mice indicates that the DA D2R is not necessary for reinforcement. However, the economic analysis indicates that the DA D2R contributes substantially to the effectiveness of food reinforcement.

A computational theory of adaptive behavior based on an evolutionary reinforcement mechanism

Two mathematical and two computational theories from the field of human and animal learning are combined to produce a more general theory of adaptive behavior. The cornerstone of this theory is an evolutionary algorithm for reinforcement learning that instantiates the idea that behavior evolves in response to selection pressure from the environment in the form of reinforcement. The evolutionary reinforcement algorithm, along with its associated equilibrium theory, are combined with a mathematical theory of conditioned reinforcement and a computational theory of associative learning that together solve the problem of credit assignment in a biologically plausible way. The result is a biologically-inspired computational theory that enables an artificial organism to adapt continuously to changing environmental conditions and to generate adaptive state-action sequences.

A critical examination of best dose analysis for determining cognitive-enhancing potential of drugs: studies with rhesus monkeys and computer simulations

RationaleBest dose analysis involves identifying the dose associated with the greatest improvement in performance for each subject and comparing performances associated with these individually determined best doses to control performances.ObjectivesThe current experiments were conducted to examine whether significant best dose effects might result from the selective analysis of data rather than an actual drug effect.MethodsExperiment 1 examined the effects of nicotine and methylphenidate on delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) and self-ordered spatial search (SOSS) performances in rhesus monkeys (DMTS: n = 7; SOSS: n = 6) to determine the validity and reliability of best dose effects. Experiment 2 used Monte Carlo computer simulations to estimate the likelihood of obtaining a significant outcome when the best dose method was applied to randomly generated data sets for which no difference existed.ResultsSignificant effects were obtained when the best dose analysis was applied to performances from nondrug sessions, and best dose performances were not significantly different from the best nondrug performances. The doses identified as best doses from two nicotine dose–response curve determinations were unrelated, and the improvement associated with the best dose observed during the first dose–response curve determination was not reliable when the dose was administered repeatedly. Finally, there was a high likelihood of obtaining a statistically significant difference when no real difference existed.ConclusionsBest dose analysis for the identification of potential therapeutic agents should be replaced by single-subject designs.