Paul M. Catling

BLOSSOMING TREASURES OF BIODIVERSITY

Everyone detests at least some foods. Would you accept an invitation to a party to sample foods that normally taste awful? But imagine that the star attraction of the party is an exotic fruit that makes the sourest and the most bitter of substances taste wonderfully sweet. Your first reaction might be, “it must be dangerous, and is probably illegal”. To find out, read on.

Cultivating the increasingly popular medicinal plant, goldenseal: Review and update

Interest in the cultivation of goldenseal is increasing and this may have benefits for agriculture, human health, and conservation. To enable a better understanding of growing conditions, cultivation methods reported in the literature were reviewed, 21 natural goldenseal populations in the northern portion of its natural range in North America were described and analyzed in terms of population size and health, and 15 successful growers were interviewed on requirements for optimal cultivation. Growing conditions in the wild were compared to those reported in the cultivation literature. Summary of data from natural populations suggests goldenseal grows best in mixed hardwood forests, under 60–65% shade, in moist sandy loam soils high in organic matter, with pH 5.7 to 6.3. Similarly, review of the literature suggests that goldenseal grows best in moist, well-drained loams high in organic matter, with pH 5.5 to 6.5. Reported shade requirements vary but 47–80% shade is considered optimal. Growing conditions reported by growers were also consistent with the cultivation literature and similar to conditions of wild populations. Although optimal growing conditions are similar to those for many crops, goldenseal is relatively robust and can grow well in a variety of conditions including wet, predominantly sandy or clay soils with pH as low as 4.8 and as high as 7.8. Cultivation can utilize a ginseng crop infrastructure and goldenseal has been recommended as a rotation crop for ginseng. Commercial production of goldenseal is potentially advantageous because (1) it is an environmentally friendly crop; (2) it has been grown successfully far outside its natural range, is easy to grow, and is considered potentially profitable; and (3) it is relatively inexpensive, having low energy, land area, and fertilization requirements. Development of a sustainable crop may contribute to the protection of native wild germplasm, which can provide valuable material for crop improvement.

Effects of invasive alien plants on birds: some examples from North America

Abstract Analysis of declining bird populations indicates that invasive aliens are a major problem. However, in most cases the problem is visualized in terms of invasive animals and introduced diseases. The role of invasive alien plants in declining bird populations is less well known. By changing the structure and composition of vegetation and by reducing or eliminating vegetative biodiversity, alien plants can reduce food, cover and optimal nesting sites for birds. Invasive alien plants may also increase mortality and change behavior in subtle ways. The problem of invasive alien plants is sometimes not obvious and is frequently complex with regard to management. It is also widespread throughout much of North America and in many cases it threatens major native plant communities upon which native birds depend. The problem is especially evident in protected areas that are essential to bird populations and often represent the last opportunity to avoid extinction. Many biologists agree that much more research on all aspects of alien invasive plants is required and it is vital to address the problem immediately. Policy makers may be able to take advantage of the enormous popularity and economic importance of birds to deal with the invasive plant issue which affects all of biodiversity.

Using Herbarium-Derived DNAs to Assemble a Large-Scale DNA Barcode Library for the Vascular Plants of Canada

Premise of the study: Constructing complete, accurate plant DNA barcode reference libraries can be logistically challenging for large-scale floras. Here we demonstrate the promise and challenges of using herbarium collections for building a DNA barcode reference library for the vascular plant flora of Canada. Methods: Our study examined 20,816 specimens representing 5076 of 5190 vascular plant species in Canada (98%). For 98% of the specimens, at least one of the DNA barcode regions was recovered from the plastid loci rbcL and matK and from the nuclear ITS2 region. We used beta regression to quantify the effects of age, type of preservation, and taxonomic affiliation (family) on DNA sequence recovery. Results: Specimen age and method of preservation had significant effects on sequence recovery for all markers, but influenced some families more (e.g., Boraginaceae) than others (e.g., Asteraceae). Discussion: Our DNA barcode library represents an unparalleled resource for metagenomic and ecological genetic research working on temperate and arctic biomes. An observed decline in sequence recovery with specimen age may be associated with poor primer matches, intragenomic variation (for ITS2), or inhibitory secondary compounds in some taxa.

BLOSSOMING TREASURES OF BIODIVERSITY: 27. Cannabis—Dr. Jekyll and Mr.Hyde

31 30 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y the plAnt Only one species of Cannabis is commonly recognized, C. sativa. The plants grow from 1 to over 6 meters (3 to 19 feet) tall and produce characteristic palmate leaves with serrated leaflets. Subspecies indica is a source of moodaltering drugs, while subspecies sativa is a source of fibre and oilseeds. Subspecies indica can be distinguished from subspecies sativa by its considerable narcotic potential. The plant is known as “hemp” when used as a source of fibre, “hempseed” when used as a source of seed oil, and “marijuana” when used for drugs. “Industrial hemp” refers to plants grown for both fibre and hempseed products. Although Cannabis sativa is the only true “hemp,” the term is applied to dozens of unrelated plant species used as fibre sources. For example, Manila Hemp comes from Musa textilis, Sisal Hemp from Agave sisalina, Ambari Hemp from Hibiscus cannabinus, and Sunn Hemp from Crotalaria juncea.

Global biodiversity - The source of new crops

Abstract There are over 400 thousand plant species on earth. Tens of thousands of these are used directly for food, medicine, construction materials, industrial products, and ornament. Some of the worlds major crops have become unprofitable, and there is a need for new crops to meet the growing needs of the 21st century. New crops can be plants not used previously, new varieties of familiar crops, well known crops used for a new purpose, and crops cultivated in a new area, grown with new techniques or sold in new markets. There is excellent potential to utilize thousands of plants that are not yet well known. Promising new crops include all kinds of plants originating from all over the world. Examples are provided of recent new crops in eight major categories, including food, forage, medicine, wood & fibre, industrial purposes, fuel & energy, ornament, and environmental benefits. Because it is impossible to predict exactly which plants will be invaluable in the future, it is critical to maintain as many of the worlds species and as much of their genetic diversity as possible. Measures should include largescale protection of natural landscapes. New crops will be important in the future to efficiently feed a growing population, to maintain human health, to meet economic demands, and to promote the protection of biodiversity & environment.

Composition, Phytogeography, and Relict Status of the Vascular Flora of Alvars and Cliff Tops Southwest of Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada

Abstract Alvars in the vicinity of Enterprise, Northwest Territories, had 87 species of vascular plants. Of these, 14 were frequent or at least locally abundant, including: Juniperus horizontalis, J. communis var. depressa, Geum triflorum var. triflorum, Carex richardsonii, Populus tremuloides, Elymus trachycaulus subsp. trachycaulus, Koeleria macrantha, Saxifraga tricuspidata, Artemesia campestris subsp. borealis, Senecio lugens, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, and Galium boreale. Of the trees comprising the surrounding forest, only Populus tremuloides and Pinus banksiana were common in the open areas. The cliff tops had fewer species but they also had some species of arctic and high boreal affinity that were absent from the alvars. Associations characterized by Deschampsia caespitosa occurred in lower areas of alvar that collect run-off, whereas higher areas were characterized by a variety of plants including Carex richardsonii, Elymus trachycaulus, and Geum triflorum. Cracks in the limestone pavement in elevated areas were occupied by Pinus banksiana and Juniperus communis. Approximately 12% of the species present were rare and/or restricted, including Avenula hookeri, Carex filifolia, and Dodecatheon pulchellum. Compared to the alvars of the Great Lakes region, the alvars and cliff tops of Northwest Territories had a much higher percentage of species that were also found in the Beringian region of northwestern North America. Higher numbers of boreal, arctic, and cordilleran species also contributed to the distinctive nature of Northwest Territories alvars, based on clustering of similarity coefficients from species presence or absence data. The alvar flora of Northwest Territories is believed to have been established in the region of Great Slave Lake between 10,000 and 8000 years ago, prior to invasion of the boreal forest. At this time, the northwestern Beringian and Cordilleran floras met the retreating tundra and prairie floras from the south in an expanding ice-free corridor. The relict flora of Northwest Territories alvars and cliff tops includes species of the Beringian steppes and tundras such as Plantago canescens, species of the central North American plains such as Geum triflorum, and many species that could have originated from the prairie-like habitats of either region. This unusual relict flora, originating in early postglacial times, is now isolated within the present boreal forest that spread through the region approximately 8000 years ago.

Taxonomic Recognition of Ammophila champlainensis and Morphological Variation in Northeastern North American Ammophila (Poaceae)

Abstract Champlain beachgrass (Ammophila champlainensis) was described by Seymour in 1966 as endemic to the shores of Lake Champlain in Vermont and New York. Some later authors have recognized it while others have not, or they have treated it at a different rank. In order to resolve the issue of the recognition and appropriate rank, nine characters, including those suggested by previous authors as important to distinguish this taxon, were measured in 457 specimens from throughout the northeastern North American range of Ammophila. A reduced data set of 281 specimens and seven characters was studied using: (1) analysis of variance to determine optimal characters for differentiating geographical groups; (2) scatter plot analysis of optimal characters; (3) principal component analysis to investigate the major trends in pattern of variation without character weighting; (4) discriminant analysis to determine the extent of differentiation using a weighted formula; and (5) linear regression to reveal trends in variation related to size of associated water bodies. The analyses failed to clearly separate the plants from Lake Champlain from other Ammophila populations. However, the Lake Champlain plants were the most discrete of nine natural geographic groups, followed by plants from Lac Saint-Jean, and then plants from the Atlantic coast. None of the geographic groups was sufficiently different to justify recognition of distinct taxa due to the extensive overlap in measurements of characters. Populations adjacent to smaller water bodies, where dunes tend to be smaller and less active, tend to have smaller plants with smaller parts. Plants from Lake Champlain, including those described and identified as A. champlainensis, and all other northeastern populations of Ammophila, are best treated as the single species A. breviligulata.

ANALYSIS OF STEM COLOR AND CORRELATED MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS FOR GROUPING PHRAGMITES (POACEAE) TAXA IN EASTERN ONTARIO

Abstract Phragmites australis subsp. australis is an invasive alien of major importance in natural habitats in many parts of North America but methods of distinguishing it from the native subsp. americanus required more research. A study of the value of basal stem internode color was conducted in eastern Ontario where the long history of collections enables characteristics of the native subspecies to be evaluated, since the invasive alien subspecies is believed to have arrived only recently. Although there is some overlap, correlation analysis indicated that basal stem internode color was highly correlated with ligule height and lower glume length, the latter characters being considered the most important for differentiation. With regard to ligule height, a measurement excluding the fringe of hair proved most valuable. Collections of native plants prior to the post-1970 spread of Phragmites along roads have reddish-purple lower stem internodes, whereas many collected after 1970 have yellow-brown lower stem internodes. Plants from interior wetlands, presumed to be native, also have reddish-purple lower stem internodes, while those from roadsides are either yellow-brown or reddish-purple. The plants with reddish-purple lower stem internodes have longer lower glumes and longer ligules on middle leaves than the plants with yellow-brown lower stem internodes. They are thus referable to the native subsp. americanus based on morphological as well as circumstantial evidence. Lower glume length and ligule height are confirmed as valuable characters for separating subsp. australis and subsp. americanus. Basal stem internode color is a valuable character, particularly for field identification and especially when combined with morphological measurements. Basal stem internode color was also indicated to be useful for studying the history of invasion of subsp. australis in eastern Ontario, and may prove similarly useful in other parts of northeastern North America, as well.

Coleanthus subtilis (Poaceae), New to Northwest Territories, and Its Status in North America

Abstract A floristic survey of a polje lakebed, which is full in the spring but drains completely as the season progresses, revealed a community of small mud-bottom plants including the globally rare Coleanthus subtilis, not previously recorded from Northwest Territories, Canada. The newly discovered site is 1077 miles NNW of its nearest North American location in southern British Columbia, which is the northern edge of a region of occurrence including southern British Columbia and the Columbia River in Washington and Oregon. The lakebed flora included four zones of vascular plants. Coleanthus subtilis was confined to the lowest level mud-bottom community, which had been exposed for the shortest period and included a rich assemblage of annuals including Juncus bufonius, Limosella aquatica, and Ranunculus hyperboreus. The lakebed flora included mostly widespread boreal species, and C. subtilis may be included in this category. It appears restricted to specific montane and boreal areas by its requirement of pronounced seasonal inundation in a cool climate. Coleanthus subtilis may have persisted at the Washington and British Columbia locations, near the limit of the continuous montane glaciation, since early postglacial times. The occurrence in Northwest Territories may be either a result of dispersal from unglaciated areas of Beringia nearby to the west or from the south. Although it has sometimes been considered introduced in the United States parts of its North American range, it is here considered native at all of its North American sites on the basis of: (1) its restricted and unusual habitat; (2) global rarity; (3) suffusive rarity, which is known to lead to mistaken assumptions of introduction; (4) occurrence in botanically rich regions and close association with rare native species; (5) relatively early year of collection; (6) distribution corresponding to a well recognized native pattern; (7) lack of evidence of spread to anthropogenic habitats; and (8) the fact that it is easily overlooked by early collectors as a result of only appearing at intervals of several years when water levels have dropped sufficiently.