Paul Mazerolle

General Strain Theory and Delinquency: A Replication and Extension

Strain theory has recently been reformulated into a theory of broader scope. In this revitalized version, called general strain theory, strain is hypothesized to have three distinct sources; (a) blockage of desired goals, (b) withdrawl or loss of valued objects, and (c) introduction of negative stimuli. Empirical tests of general strain theory are few to date, and those that have been conducted, although generally supportive, have shortcomings that preclude the drawing of more definitive conclusions. The authors conduct a more comprehensive test of general strain theory and, with a longitudinal sample of adolescents, find that several dimensions of general strain are positively related to involvement in a wide range of delinquent acts. Strain has both a direct effect on delinquency and indirect effects by weakening the inhibitions of the social bond and increasing ones involvement with delinquent peers. It is concluded that general strain theory makes an important contribution to delinquency theory, and additional efforts should be undertaken to fully develop its implications.

Gender, general strain, and delinquency: An empirical examination

Despite an increase of research on general strain theory (GST), an empirical analysis investigating potential differences between males and females has not been conducted. Here we conduct univariate and multivariate comparisons between males and females to assess whether significant differences exist across groups. In longitudinal models predicting delinquent behavior, we find evidence of the positive effect of strain on subsequent delinquency net of other predictors. Moreover, in comparing the effects of predictors across groups, we find evidence that the effects of GST-related predictors do not differ between males and females at conventional levels of significance. In focusing on crime-specific effects for violent and property-related delinquency, however, we find some evidence of gender differences in the effects of negative life events and experiences on subsequent delinquency. We discuss future directions for examining the gendered nature of delinquent behavior from a GST perspective.

Linking exposure to strain with anger: an investigation of deviant adaptations

Abstract Recent developments in strain theory have moved toward a broad conceptualization of strain. In a series of papers, Agnew 1992 has developed General Strain Theory (GST), which attempts to address past criticisms of more traditional theories of strain. There have, however, been few empirical tests of GST, and the critical role of anger has not been widely examined. In the present analysis, a partial empirical test of GST is presented that examines the mediating effects of anger as well as the possible instrumental, escapist, and violent adaptations to strain. The results reveal partial support for GST, but only for models predicting intentions to fight. In addition, the mediating effects of anger were not observed in models predicting intentions to drive drunk, shoplift, and fight. Implications of the results and future directions for GST are discussed.

Testing for the Equality of Maximum-Likelihood Regression Coefficients between Two Independent Equations

Consider the case where one obtains maximum-likelihood estimates of regression coefficients for the respective populations from which each of two large independent samples is drawn. A question sometimes asked about the results of such an analysis is whether there is a difference between a coefficient in one population, θa, and the same coefficient in another population, θb. In this paper, we evaluate the performance of two test statistics that have been used to address this problem. Our results suggest that one statistic produces valid conclusions, while the other fails.

General strain and delinquency: An anternative examination of conditioning influences

One of the key assumptions of Agnews general strain theory (GST) is that various factors condition the effect of strain on delinquency. Past research examining this question, however, has not revealed consistent support for this hypothesis. The accumulating negative evidence on the conditioning hypothesis suggests that the theory may need to be revised or, alternatively, that past studies simply were unable to uncover valid relationships because of the analytical methods employed. In the current examination, we use data from the National Youth Survey and contingency table analyses to examine whether the strain-delinquency relationship is conditioned by various risk factors such as exposure to delinquent peers, holding deviant beliefs, and having a behavioral propensity toward delinquency. The results reveal both cross-sectional and longitudinal support for the conditioning hypothesis derived from GST. Implications for future research on GST are discussed.

Strain, anger, and delinquent adaptations Specifying general strain theory

Agnews general strain theory has been one of the more significant developments in theoretical criminology over the past decade. To extend the emerging empirical literature assessing this perspective, the current study presented original data collected from a sample of high school-aged youths in the 1990s, included a measure of anger that a number of previous tests overlooked, and examined a number of different delinquent adaptations to strain. The analysis focused directly on the relationships between exposure to strain, anger, and delinquent behavior. An examination was conducted into whether strain has direct or indirect effects, through the mediating effects of anger, on three types of delinquent outcomes: violence, drug use, and school-related deviance. The findings reveal that strain has direct (i.e., independent) effects on violence even after controlling for other influences, but exposure to strain is not related to illicit drug use or school-related deviance independently. The results reveal that the criminogenic effects of strain on drug use are conditional on weak social bonds and exposure to deviant affiliations. In addition, the results reveal that anger does not mediate the effects of strain on delinquent outcomes. The results for models predicting violence reveal that the criminogenic effects of anger operate through strain. The results are consistent with the view that youth with high levels of anger disproportionately experience and/or perceive strainful circumstances or events that can lead to violence. Explanations on why strain and anger appear to have differential effects on varied delinquent outcomes were offered.

Violent responses to strain: an examination of conditioning influences

Past research on General Strain Theory (GST) has not widely examined the application of the theory for understanding violent responses to strain. Additionally, the theory suggests there may be varying effects of strain on possible deviant outcomes across individuals differentiated on their dispositions toward deviance. In the current analysis, we examine violent responses to strain using original data collected from a sample of college-aged youth. Moreover, we specifically examine whether the effects of strain and anger on possible violent outcomes are invariant across individuals differentiated on their level of exposure to deviant peers and moral constraints against deviance. Using structural equation modeling, our results suggest that a composite measure of strain increases respondents’ intentions to engage in assaultive behavior net of other predictors. Additionally, the results reveal that anger mediates the impact of strain on possible violent responses. Finally, the results of our subgroup analyses suggest that the basic form of the GST model is invariant across groups.

General strain theory, situational anger, and social networks: An assessment of conditioning influences

Using a random sample of university students to test general strain theory (GST), this study expanded on previous tests of strain theory in two ways. First, situational anger was measured, a construct that had not been used thus far in assessments of general strain. In addition, this research examined the role of social support networks as a conditioning influence on the effects of strain and anger on intentions to commit three types of criminal behavior (serious assault, shoplifting, and driving under the influence of alcohol [DUI]). The results provided mixed support for GST. While the link between anger and crime was confirmed, the nature of that relationship in some cases ran counter to the theory. Moreover, the evidence indicated that the role of social support networks was complex, and varied as a conditioning influence on intentions to engage in criminal activities.

Generality, Continuity, and Change in Offending

A number of criminological theories make either implicit or explicit predictions about the empirical relationship between prior and future offending behavior. Some argue that time-stable characteristics such as criminal propensity should account for any positive correlation between past and future criminal behavior for all individuals. Others contend that the positive association between offending behavior at different points in time are partly causal and partly spurious. Still others anticipate that different patterns will emerge for different groups (distinguished by their ciminal propensity) of individuals. Using a longitudinal data set comprised of 848 training school releasees, we test various hypotheses emanating from these different theoretical perspectives. The results indicate that (1) both stability and change have causal implications for ones offending behavior and (2) with but one exception, these effects do not vary between high and low criminal propensity groups.

Examining the Links between Strain, Situational and Dispositional Anger, and Crime: Further Specifying and Testing General Strain Theory.

Past research testing General Strain Theory has relied on trait-based, static indicators ofang er, assuming that “anger people” develop angry emotional states (i.e., situational anger) when exposed to strain. Here, the authors explore whether the relationship between strain, anger, and deviant outcomes varies as a function of whether trait-based or situational-based measures ofang er are used. Additionally, using structural equation modeling, they examine whether individuals with high levels of trait anger have an increased likelihood ofe xperiencing strain, becoming angry due to strain, and responding with deviance. The results reveal that relying on trait-based static indicators ofang er is problematic. The findings demonstrate that the relationship between anger and deviant outcomes is attenuated when trait-based measures of anger are used. Moreover, results also reveal that trait anger increases deviant outcomes independent ofthe effects ofstr ain or situational anger, which suggests that different mechanisms are operating.