Paul N. Wilson

Virtual reality, disability and rehabilitation

Virtual reality, or virtual environment computer technology, generates simulated objects and events with which people can interact. Existing and potential applications for this technology in the field of disability and rehabilitation are discussed. The main benefits identified for disabled people are that they can engage in a range of activities in a simulator relatively free from the limitations imposed by their disability, and they can do so in safety. Evidence that the knowledge and skills acquired by disabled individuals in simulated environments can transfer to the real world is presented. In particular, spatial information and life skills learned in a virtual environment have been shown to transfer to the real world. Applications for visually impaired people are discussed, and the potential for medical interventions and the assessment and treatment of neurological damage are considered. Finally some current limitations of the technology, and ethical concerns in relation to disability, are discussed.

Transfer of Spatial Information from a Virtual to a Real Environment

A group 10 severely physically disabled children explored a to-scale computer simulation of a real multi-storey building. Following exploration, their knowledge of the spatial properties of the real environment was assessed by asking them to point to fire apparatus that was not visible from the test site. Subjects in a control group were asked to complete the same assessment tasks, but without the opportunity to explore either the real building or the computer simulation. The estimates of the disabled children were superior to the control group indicating good transfer of spatial knowledge. Route finding and recognition reports provided support for the pointing data in indicating good transfer of spatial information.

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Transfer of spatial information from a virtual to a real environment in physically disabled children

A group of 10 severely physically disabled children explored a to-scale computer simulation of a real multi-storey building. Following exploration, their knowledge of the spatial properties of the real environment was assessed by asking them to point to fire apparatus that was not visible from the test site. Subjects in a control group were asked to complete the same assessment tasks, but without the opportunity to explore either the real building or the computer simulation. The estimates of the disabled children were superior to the control group indicating good transfer of spatial knowledge. Route finding and recognition reports provided support for the pointing data in indicating good transfer of spatial information.

Orientation-Free Representations from Navigation through a Computer-Simulated Environment

Navigating through an environment and viewing a map of that environment can result in different types of cognitive representation. Maps are typically encoded in the same onentation that they are viewed, while navigation results in an orientation-free representation. The present study concerns the orientation specificity of spatial knowledge following navigation in a computer-simulated space. Subjects either explored a simulated 3-D environment by navigating through it, or were presented with a map-like single orientation plan view of the same environment. When asked to indicate the direction of test objects that were not directly visible from within the simulation, response latencies suggested that the navigafton group had an orientation-free representation while the map group had an orientation-specific representation. We conclude that navigation in computer-simulated space and real space lead to similar kinds of spatial knowledge.

ACTIVE EXPLORATION OF A VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT DOES NOT PROMOTE ORIENTATION OR MEMORY FOR OBJECTS

Active participants explored a desktop three-dimensional computer-simulated environment, whereas observer participants passively watched the screen. The ostensible task for all participants was to remember as many objects as possible that were encountered during the course of exploration. In a test, all participants were asked to indicate the direction of test locations from a position where these were not directly visible. Contrary to the hypothesis of superior orientation performance in the active group, the error scores for the two groups were found to be statistically equivalent. There were no significant differences between the scores of the active and passive groups on three tests of memory for objects. The results suggest that the failure to find a beneficial effect on orientation of active exploration in a virtual environment is not due to high levels of attention to the spatial aspect of the task in the passive condition.

The effect of landmarks on route-learning in a computer-simulated environment

Abstract In a route-learning task in a computer-simulated environment, subjects repeatedly negotiated a series of rooms each containing two exit doors, and were required to learn which of the doors lead to the next room. In the landmark condition each room contained distinctive objects, while in the non-landmark condition all rooms were identical. The results of experiment 1 revealed that the route-learning performance of both groups was comparable. It was hypothesized that the landmark group relied primarily on paired associate learning in which the landmark objects were associated with the correct door while the non-landmark group learnt a list of correct left/right decisions. In an attempt to suppress the latter strategy, in experiment 2 two groups of subjects were asked to perform the same tasks as the groups in experiment 1, but were required to do a backcounting task while learning the route. This manipulation resulted in superior performance on the part of the landmark group. It is argued that landmarks are only one of many successful strategies that people have at their disposal for learning routes, and that in order to show that landmarks can facilitate route-learning it is necessary to suppress other strategies.

Transfer of spatial knowledge to a two-level shopping mall in older people, following virtual exploration

Groups of older and younger participants explored a virtual shopping mall composed of more than 60 retail outlets on 2 levels. They were then compared with guessing controls for their understanding of the spatial layout of the real equivalent building. Experimental groups showed greater accuracy in making pointing judgments toward targets not visible from the pointing site, took shorter times to perform route tasks on foot, made better left-right directional judgments, and sketched better maps of the mall. Of the older participants, 2 out of 8 performed at chance throughout. Younger experimental participants remembered better than did older ones on which level targets were located. The study shows that many older people remain spatially competent and that age is not a barrier to the effective use of virtual environment technology, which may be used in the future to increase inclusion of older populations by encouraging their confident use of public buildings.

Active versus passive learning and testing in a complex outside built environment

A review of the evidence on active and passive learning in virtual environments (VEs) suggests that both conditions have shown superiority under some conditions of learning and testing, but there is no consistent outcome pattern. Measures of transfer between virtual and real environments have also revealed a variety of outcomes. Following either active or passive learning in a VE, experiment 1 assessed measures of orientation and distance estimation in that VE and in a real-world equivalent environment. On measures of direct and relative distance, more accurate estimates were found for active than passive VE explorers. A suggestion was also noted for the orientation estimates to benefit from real-world rather than VE testing. With an improvement to the procedure, experiment 2 found similar real versus virtual orientation judgements, suggesting that an opportunity for active learning during the test procedure probably influenced orientation measures in experiment 1. We conclude that the effects of interactivity are unreliable and vary with the measures used, and that testing in virtual and real environments leads to similar outcomes.

Blocking of spatial learning between enclosure geometry and a local landmark.

In a virtual environment, blocking of spatial learning to locate an invisible target was found reciprocally between a distinctively shaped enclosure and a local landmark within its walls. The blocking effect was significantly stronger when the shape of the enclosure rather than the landmark served as the blocking cue. However, the extent to which the landmark blocked enclosure-shape learning was not influenced by increasing the physical salience of the landmark. The outcomes are the first to suggest that cue-interaction effects, commonly found in human and animal contingency learning experiments, are also found in human spatial learning based on landmarks and enclosure walls. The data are discussed in terms of spatial reference frames.