Paul Reichert

Molecular views of viral polyprotein processing revealed by the crystal structure of the hepatitis C virus bifunctional protease-helicase

BACKGROUNDnHepatitis C virus (HCV) currently infects approximately 3% of the worlds population. HCV RNA is translated into a polyprotein that during maturation is cleaved into functional components. One component, nonstructural protein 3 (NS3), is a 631-residue bifunctional enzyme with protease and helicase activities. The NS3 serine protease processes the HCV polyprotein by both cis and trans mechanisms. The structural aspects of cis processing, the autoproteolysis step whereby the protease releases itself from the polyprotein, have not been characterized. The structural basis for inclusion of protease and helicase activities in a single polypeptide is also unknown.nnnRESULTSnWe report here the 2.5 A resolution structure of an engineered molecule containing the complete NS3 sequence and the protease activation domain of nonstructural protein 4A (NS4A) in a single polypeptide chain (single chain or scNS3-NS4A). In the molecule, the helicase and protease domains are segregated and connected by a single strand. The helicase necleoside triphosphate and RNA interaction sites are exposed to solvent. The protease active site of scNS3-NS4A is occupied by the NS3 C terminus, which is part of the helicase domain. Thus, the intramolecular complex shows one product of NS3-mediated cleavage at the NS3-NS4A junction of the HCV polyprotein bound at the protease active site.nnnCONCLUSIONSnThe scNS3-NS4A structure provides the first atomic view of polyprotein cis processing. Both local and global structural rearrangements follow the cis cleavage reaction, and large segments of the polyprotein can be folded prior to proteolytic processing. That the product complex of the cis cleavage reaction exists in a stable molecular conformation suggests autoinhibition and substrate-induced activation mechanisms for regulation of NS3 protease activity.

Structural characterization of nitric oxide synthase isoforms reveals striking active-site conservation.

Crystal structures of human endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and human inducible NOS (iNOS) catalytic domains were solved in complex with the arginine substrate and an inhibitor S-ethylisothiourea (SEITU), respectively. The small molecules bind in a narrow cleft within the larger active-site cavity containing heme and tetrahydrobiopterin. Both are hydrogen-bonded to a conserved glutamate (eNOS E361, iNOS E377). The active-site residues of iNOS and eNOS are nearly identical. Nevertheless, structural comparisons provide a basis for design of isozyme-selective inhibitors. The high-resolution, refined structures of eNOS (2.4 Å resolution) and iNOS (2.25 Å resolution) reveal an unexpected structural zinc situated at the intermolecular interface and coordinated by four cysteines, two from each monomer.

Zinc mediated dimer of human interferon-α2b revealed by X-ray crystallography

BACKGROUNDnThe human alpha-interferon (huIFN-alpha) family displays broad spectrum antiviral, antiproliferative and immunomodulatory activities on a variety of cell types. The diverse biological activities of the IFN-alphas are conveyed to cells through specific interactions with cell-surface receptors. Despite considerable effort, no crystal structure of a member of this family has yet been reported, because the quality of the protein crystals have been unsuitable for crystallographic studies. Until now, structural models of the IFN-alphas have been based on the structure of murine IFN-beta (muIFN-beta). These models are likely to be inaccurate, as the amino acid sequence of muIFN-beta differs significantly from the IFN-alphas at proposed receptor-binding sites. Structural information on a huIFN-alpha subtype would provide an improved basis for modeling the structures of the entire IFN-alpha family.nnnRESULTSnThe crystal structure of recombinant human interferon-alpha 2b (huIFN-alpha 2b) has been determined at 2.9 A resolution. HuIFN-alpha 2b exists in the crystal as a noncovalent dimer, which associates in a novel manner. Unlike other structurally characterized cytokines, extensive interactions in the dimer interface are mediated by a zinc ion (Zn2+). The overall fold of huIFN-alpha 2b is most similar to the structure of muIFN-beta. Unique to huIFN-alpha 2b is a 3(10) helix in the AB loop which is held to the core of the molecule by a disulfide bond.nnnCONCLUSIONSnThe structure of huIFN-alpha 2b provides an accurate model for analysis of the > 15 related type 1 interferon molecules. HuIFN-alpha 2b displays considerable structural similarity with muIFN-beta, interleukin-10 and interferon-gamma, which also bind related class 2 cytokine receptors. From these structural comparisons and numerous studies on the effects of mutations on biological activity, we have identified protein surfaces that appear to be important in receptor activation. This study also reveals the potential biological importance of the huIFN-alpha 2b dimer.

Crystal structures of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-23 and its complex with a high-affinity neutralizing antibody

Interleukin (IL)-23 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine playing a key role in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. We have determined the crystal structures of the heterodimeric p19-p40 IL-23 and its complex with the Fab (antigen-binding fragment) of a neutralizing antibody at 2.9 and 1.9 A, respectively. The IL-23 structure closely resembles that of IL-12. They share the common p40 subunit, and IL-23 p19 overlaps well with IL-12 p35. Along the hydrophilic heterodimeric interface, fewer charged residues are involved for IL-23 compared with IL-12. The binding site of the Fab is located exclusively on the p19 subunit, and comparison with published cytokine-receptor structures suggests that it overlaps with the IL-23 receptor binding site.

Application of electrospray mass spectrometry in probing protein-protein and protein-ligand noncovalent interactions.

A novel mass spectrometry-based methodology using electrospray ionization (ESI) is described for the detection of protein-protein [interferon (IFN)-γ dimer] and protein-ligand [ras-guanosine diphosphate (GDP)] noncovalent interactions. The method utilizes ESI from aqueous solution at appropriate pH. The presence of the noncovalent complex of the IFN-γ dimer was confirmed by the observed average molecular weight of 33,819 Da. The key to the detection of the IFN-γ dimer is the use of an alkaline solution (pH ≈ 9) for sample preparation and for mass spectrornetry analysis. The effect of the declustering energy in the region of the ion sampling orifice and focusing quadrupole on the preservation of the gas-phase noncovalent complex (IFN-γ dimer) was also studied. The effect of the declustering energy on complex dissociation was further extended to probe the noncovalent protein-ligand association of ras-GDP. It was found that little energy is required to dissociate the IFN-γ dimer, whereas a substantial amount of energy is required to dissociate the gas-phase ras-GDP complex.

Protein crystal growth in microgravity review of large scale temperature induction method : bovine insulin, human insulin and human alpha interferon

Abstract The protein crystal growth facility (PCF) is space-flight hardware that accommodates large scale protein crystal growth experiments using temperature change as the inductive step. Recent modifications include specialized instrumentation for monitoring crystal nucleation with laser light scattering. This paper reviews results from the PCFs first seven flights on the Space Shuttle, the last with laser light scattering instrumentation. The PCFs objective is twofold: (1) production of high quality protein crystals for X-ray analysis and subsequent structure based drug design and (2) preparation of a large quantity of relatively contaminant free crystals for use as time-release protein pharmaceuticals. The first three Shuttle flights with bovine insulin constituted the PCFs proof of concept, demonstrating that the space-grown crystals were larger and diffracted to higher resolution than their earth-grown counterparts. The later four PCF missions were used to grow recombinant human insulin crystals for X-ray analysis and to continue productions trials aimed at the development of a processing facility for crystalline recombinant alpha interferon.

Macroscale production of crystalline interferon alfa‐2b in microgravity on STS‐52

Macroscale crystallization of zinc interferon alfa‐2b was achieved on STS‐52 in October 1992 in the Protein Crystallization Facility. Conditions for crystallization were established by adapting a microscale vapor diffusion method to a macroscale temperature induction method. A series of earth based pilot experiments established conditions to reproducibly crystallize zinc interferon alfa‐2b in high yield and under cleanroom conditions. As a control for the STS‐52 mission, a ground experiment was run simultaneously and in the same configuration as the flight experiment. Greater than 95% of the available protein crystallized in both the ground and flight experiments. Using a battery of physical, biochemical and biological characterization assays, demonstrated that sample processing, polysulfone bottle confinement and the conditions used for crystallization did not have a negative effect on protein integrity. Redissolved crystals from the flight and ground experiments showed full biological activity in a cyto...

Macroscale production and analysis of crystalline interferon alpha‐2B in microgravity on STS‐52

The development and production of a zinc‐interferon alpha‐2b crystalline suspension on STS‐52 has accelerated our ability to prepare novel high quality pharmaceutical preparations. Crystalline suspensions of protein therapeutics have applications in drug delivery, formulation, and manufacturing. These applications require crystalline suspensions of relatively small particles (<100 microns) of uniform size and shape. Previously, a crystalline form of interferon alpha‐2b was identified from microscale crystallization methods with utility in pharmaceutical applications from microscale crystallization methods. Conditions for macroscale crystallization were established by adapting a microscale vapor diffusion method to a macroscale temperature induction method. A series of earth based pilot experiments established conditions to reproducibly crystallize zinc interferon alpha‐2b in high yield and under ‘‘cleanroom’’ conditions. These conditions were maintained in microgravity. Greater than 95% of the available p...

Protein crystal growth in microgravity review of large scale temperature induction method: Bovine insulin, human insulin and human α-interferon

The Protein Crystal Growth Facility (PCF) is space-flight hardware that accommodates large scale protein crystal growth experiments using temperature change as the inductive step. Recent modifications include specialized instrumentation for monitoring crystal nucleation with laser light scattering. This paper reviews results from its first seven flights on the Space Shuttle, the last with laser light scattering instrumentation in place. The PCF’s objective is twofold: (1) the production of high quality protein crystals for x-ray analysis and subsequent structure-based drug design and (2) preparation of a large quantity of relatively contaminant free crystals for use as time-release protein pharmaceuticals. The first three Shuttle flights with bovine insulin constituted the PCF’s proof of concept, demonstrating that the space-grown crystals were larger and diffracted to higher resolution than their earth-grown counterparts. The later four PCF missions were used to grow recombinant human insulin crystals fo...