Paul T. Craddock

The composition of the copper alloys used by the Greek, Etruscan and Roman civilizations: 3. The Origins and Early Use of Brass

This is the third of a series of papers dealing with the composition of copper alloys used in the classical world. Although a few isolated examples of prehistoric copper alloys containing several per cent of zinc are known, notably from Cyprus, it was not until the first millennium BC that the deliberate production of brass commenced, probably in Asia Minor. From the 7th century the Greeks commented upon brass, but always as an expensive, exotic metal not produced in Greece, and this is borne out by the absence of zinc in the great majority of Greek bronzes. Similarly, of the many Etruscan bronzes analysed, only two from the 5th and 3rd centuries BC respectively were of brass and these contained about 11% zinc with less than 3% tin (see below). By the 1st century BC the Romans were using the cementation process for producing brass. Initially it seems to have been used for coinage, but rapidly became popular in other fields, especially decorative metalwork where it largely replaced bronze. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the zinc content of the coinage fell, and brasses with a high zinc content ceased to be used, although brass continued to be as popular as ever accounting for about 30% of Roman copper alloys. By the 3rd century an alloy of copper with a few per cent each of lead, zinc and tin (modern “leaded gunmetal”) was in regular use, and has remained so ever since. From the time of the King James Bible of 1611 in which all copper alloys are called “brass” irrespective of composition, the early development and use of brass has been confused, and learned books, both ancient and modern have often tended to increase rather than decrease this confusion! The origins of both terms “Brass” and bronze are obscure, but it seems that in medieval times brass was applied to all copper alloys, and only from the Renaissance the term bronzo was used in Italy to denote copper alloys specifically alloyed with tin. However the terms continued indiscriminately in use in England until the 19th century; Johnson defines bronze as brass in his Dictionary. However amongst the many works on the subject, those by Caley (1964) and Werner (1972) are very useful and shed much light on what is otherwise a rather dark area. By combining the information in these books with the new analyses, particularly those of the Roman period to be published in subsequent parts of this work, a much more complete picture of the early history of brass from its inception until the end of the Roman Empire can be built up. For the purposes of this review brass is taken to mean an alloy of copper to which zinc has been deliberately introduced. In pre-Roman brasses the zinc normally replaces tin, but in Roman brass the two metals are often both present in the alloy.

The composition of the copper alloys used by the Greek, etruscan and Roman civilisations: 2. The Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic Greeks

Abstract This paper is the second dealing with the composition of copper alloys used by the Greeks. About 500 analyses of Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic objects are published here pp. 117–123 together with comments upon the alloys used. The data are arranged chronologically within broad limits and further subdivided typologically. The techniques of sampling and analysis are discussed in depth in the first part of this project (Craddock, 1976) . The development of casting technology is one of the principal features of bronze-working during this period. Our knowledge of Greek casting technology comes both from archaeological excavation and from a careful examination of the castings themselves. Evidence from these sources has been brought together here for the first time together with the comments of medieval, renaissance, and modern technical authors to attempt a coherent picture of the way the superb Greek bronzes were produced and adorned. It was during this period that the Greeks started using mercury gilding on copper and bronze; and the techniques and range of gilded metal are discussed.

The composition of the copper alloys used by the Greek, Etruscan and Roman civilizations 1. The Greeks before the archaic period

Abstract This paper is the first of four parts dealing with the composition of copper alloys used in the classical world. In this paper there is a discussion of previous analytical work and the use to which the analytical data may be put. For published compositional analyses to be of use it is essential that details of the sampling, analytical procedure and standard deviation of the results be reported. The reasons for this are discussed in detail with examples from literature where failure to do this has made the interpretation of the reported analytical results difficult if not impossible. In this part of the work the composition of about 300 Bronze Age and Geometric Greek bronzes are reported. The data are arranged chronologically within broad limits, and further subdivided typologically. There is a discussion of the results of each group from which it is possible to discern trends in metal composition. The composition of individual objects is also discussed where it is of importance or unusual.

Role of Materials Analysis in the Reconstruction of Early Metal Extraction Technology: Zinc and Silver-Lead Smelting at Zawar, Rajasthan

Microscopy and elemental analysis of ore, slag, ceramic and ash from a major metallurgical site have allowed insights into the ancient processes. Constraints have been placed on raw materials and smelting conditions, and aspects of technological change and development have been recognised.

Britain's First Brass

Stamps on the blade of a sword from the Thames, originally considered to be Anglo-Saxon, now place the sword stylistically in the La Tène II period (late third to early second century BC). X-ray fluorescence tests have shown that the gold-coloured foil covering the stamps consists of 80 per cent copper and 20 per cent zinc, this being the formula for brass. The sword therefore represents the earliest known use of brass in Britain.

Early Metal Mining and Production

This text is a comprehensive account of the development of extractive metallurgy from its inception to the Industrial Revolution. Drawing on information gained through state-of-the-art archaeological sampling methods, the secrets of early mining and smelting techniques are revealed, as well as the dramatic technological developments that transformed those processes in the 16th-19th centuries. Integrating documentary evidence with metallurgical study and new information from archaeological excavations in Europe, India, Iran, North America and China, this work offers a full history of mining and metal production worldwide.

Old ways in the Kolar gold field

Present workings at India’s Kolar gold Field are well over 3000 metres deep, surpassed only by some gold mines in South Africa. But the history of gold mining in the region goes back to the early second millenium BC.