Paul Tavernier

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in wildlife: common parasites in Belgian foxes and Cervidae?

Sera from Cervidae were tested for the presence of antibodies against Neospora caninum using ELISA; and against Toxoplasma gondii using SAG1-ELISA and a commercially available agglutination test. The T. gondii seroprevalence was 52% (38/73) in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 0% in bred fallow deer (0/4) (Dama dama) and red deer (0/7) (Cervus elaphus). We found 2.7% of the roe deer samples and none of the bred deer samples positive for N. caninum. Brain samples from wild roe deer, red deer and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were tested for the presence of T. gondii and N. caninum DNA using multiplex real-time PCR. We detected T. gondii in 18.8% (57/304) of the red foxes and in 1 of the 33 deer samples. N. caninum was found in 6.6% of the red foxes and in 2 roe deer samples. Twenty-six of the T. gondii positive DNA extracts from the red fox samples were genotyped. Twenty-five were type II and only one was found to be type III.

Chlamydophila psittaci in homing and feral pigeons and zoonotic transmission

Chlamydiosis is a zoonotic disease in birds caused by Chlamydophila psittaci, an obligate intracellular bacterium. There are seven known avian outer-membrane protein A genotypes, A-F and E/B. The importance of genotyping lies in the fact that certain genotypes tend to be associated with certain hosts and a difference in virulence. Genotype B is the most prevalent in pigeons, but the more virulent genotypes A and D have also been discovered. The current study assessed the prevalence of C. psittaci in 32 Belgian homing-pigeon facilities and in 61 feral pigeons captured in the city of Ghent, Belgium. Additionally, zoonotic transmission of C. psittaci was investigated in the homing-pigeon facilities. Homing pigeons were often infected, as at least one of the lofts was positive in 13 of the 32 (40.6 %) pigeon breeding facilities. Genotypes B, C and D were detected. Zoonotic transmission was discovered in 4 of the 32 (12.5 %) pigeon fanciers, revealing genotype D in two of them, whilst genotyping was unsuccessful for the other two human pharyngeal swabs. This study clearly demonstrates the possible risk of C. psittaci zoonotic transmission from homing pigeons. Pigeon fanciers often (37.5 %) used antibiotics for prevention of respiratory disease. Because of the risk of developing drug-resistant strains, regular use of antimicrobial drugs must be avoided. This study is believed to be the first to detect C. psittaci in Belgian feral pigeons. The prevalence rate in the city of Ghent was extremely low, which is beneficial for public health.

Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Seropositive Dog Detected in Belgium: Screening of the Canine Population as Sentinels for Public Health

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is an important emerging tick-borne viral infection of humans and dogs in Europe. Currently, TBEV surveillance is virtually nonexistent in Belgium, which is considered nonendemic. A commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was adapted for the detection of TBEV-specific IgG-antibodies in canine sera. Serum samples of Belgian dogs were obtained from three diagnostic laboratories from Northern (n=688) and Southern Belgium (n=192). ELISA-positive and borderline samples were subjected to a TBEV rapid fluorescent focus inhibition confirmation test. One dog was confirmed TBEV seropositive. Several ELISA-positive and borderline sera underwent seroneutralization and hemagglutinin inhibition tests to rule out West Nile and Louping Ill viruses, but tested negative. The clinical history of the seropositive dog could not explain beyond doubt where and when TBEV infection was acquired. Further surveillance is necessary to determine whether this dog remains a single travel-related case or whether it represents an early warning of a possible future emergence of TBEV.

Prevalence and Genotype Distribution of Chlamydia psittaci in Feral Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) in Belgium

Chlamydia psittaci is a zoonotic pathogen with a wide range of avian hosts and worldwide geographical spread. Zoonotic transfer occurs by inhalation or direct contact and may cause psittacosis or parrot disease. Host reservoirs of particular epidemiological interest include gregarious or migratory species, as colonial behavior facilitates microbial spread amongst conspecifics and a migratory ecology permits disperse over a wide geographic region. The current study detected C. psittaci antibodies in 76 of 81 (93.8%) feral Canada geese (Branta canadensis) using a species-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Viable C. psittaci were isolated from pharyngeal swabs of 47 of 81 (58%) birds, and subsequent ompA-based genotyping revealed genotypes E, B, and E/B. Absence of clinical symptoms in these geese could reflect a strong natural protection or a persistent infection. Canada geese are considered an important alien species in Europe. Current results denote that this avian reservoir poses a considerable risk to native wildlife as a potential source of C. psittaci.

Wildtool, a flexible, first-line risk assessment system for wildlife-borne pathogens

We describe the prototype of an electronic tool for risk assessment with dynamic ranking of wildlife-borne pathogens in function of their need for surveillance. Data about pathogens, their hosts and occurrences are obtained from literature and are classified as qualitative scores under six main criteria with their sub-criteria, corresponding to the elements of a standard risk assessment. Pathogen-specific data are reviewed by experts. The information is processed per pathogen through an algorithm and through summing up of the values obtained by converting four-tiered qualitative sub-criteria scores to weighted five-tiered numerical values. For a consistent comparison between pathogens, the “unknown” sub-criteria scores are assigned a median value of 3, allowing preservation of the sub-criteria concerned and their weights for the risk assessment, but minimizing the effect of this score on the outcome. Irregular data availability is further accommodated by a different data processing for comprehensiveness and refinement requirements, which is realised by a respective first- and second-level ranking of pathogens, the latter using additional quantitative and qualitative data for the release assessment. Continuous data updates are necessary to reflect the current situation in the field. Output flexibility is implemented by the possibility to run queries based on the choice of a region, a specific target group susceptible to the pathogens and a set of weights for the sub-criteria.

Malaria in an Eastern Screech Owl (Otus asio)

Abstract Owls are frequent carriers of blood parasites but clinical malaria infections are rare. Various stages of Plasmodium subpraecox were seen in 90% of the erythrocytes of an Eastern screech owl (Otus asio) showing symptoms consistent with malaria 1 wk after admission for traumatic injuries. An additional unidentified blood parasite, either a Plasmodium or a Haemoproteus spp. was found in small numbers of red blood cells on blood films examined at admission and at day 7 postadmission. Combined infestation, trauma-induced stress, and iatrogenic corticosteroid administration are possible factors that could have induced disease. Oral treatment with mefloquine at 30 mg/kg, repeated after 12, 24, and 48 hr, proved successful in eliminating both organisms and signs of clinical disease.

Serologic screening for 13 infectious agents in roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) in Flanders

Introduction In order to investigate the role of roe deer in the maintenance and transmission of infectious animal and human diseases in Flanders, we conducted a serologic screening in 12 hunting areas. Materials and methods Roe deer sera collected between 2008 and 2013 (n=190) were examined for antibodies against 13 infectious agents, using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, virus neutralisation, immunofluorescence, or microagglutination test, depending on the agent. Results and discussion High numbers of seropositives were found for Anaplasma phagocytophilum (45.8%), Toxoplasma gondii (43.2%) and Schmallenberg virus (27.9%), the latter with a distinct temporal distribution pattern following the outbreak in domestic ruminants. Lower antibody prevalence was found for Chlamydia abortus (6.7%), tick-borne encephalitis virus (5.1%), Neospora caninum (4.8%), and Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis (4.1%). The lowest prevalences were found for Leptospira (1.7%), bovine viral diarrhoea virus 1 (1.3%), and Coxiella burnetii (1.2%). No antibodies were found against Brucella sp., bovine herpesvirus 1, and bluetongue virus. A significant difference in seroprevalence between ages (higher in adults >1 year) was found for N. caninum. Four doubtful reacting sera accounted for a significant difference in seroprevalence between sexes for C. abortus (higher in females). Conclusions Despite the more intensive landscape use in Flanders, the results are consistent with other European studies. Apart from maintaining C. abortus and MAP, roe deer do not seem to play an important role in the epidemiology of the examined zoonotic and domestic animal pathogens. Nevertheless, their meaning as sentinels should not be neglected in the absence of other wild cervid species.

Anaesthesia of a Siamang monkey (Hylobates syndactylus) for the surgical correction of a hand injury

THE ability to physically restrain primates depends on the size and condition of the animal, the handler’s skill and the available equipment. In animals weighing more than 12 kg, chemical restraint is considered necessary for safe handling (Joslin 2003). The drug should have a wide therapeutic index because the animal’s exact weight is often unknown. It should allow a quick recovery and be effective in small volumes, allowing fast injection and avoiding local tissue reactions (Sainsbury and others 1989). Administration routes can be oral, intravenous, intramuscular or by inhalation. This short communication describes the anaesthesia of a Siamang monkey (Hylobates syndactylus), for the surgical correction of a hand injury. A seven-year-old female Siamang monkey from a public wildlife park, weighing 10 kg, was presented to the veterinary faculty of Ghent University. The animal had sustained an injury to its right hand one month previously under unknown conditions. Despite local antibiotic treatment, several fingers had became infected, and self-mutilation had resulted in the animal losing its distal phalanges in the central three fingers. As the condition of the monkey’s hand had deteriorated, the animal had started to lose weight. In order to perform a clinical and radiographic evaluation of the hand, the monkey was scheduled for general anaesthesia, and was fasted and deprived of water for 12 hours before surgery. It appeared to be in a poor general physical condition, and as the animal was difficult to handle, no thorough preanaesthetic evaluation was possible. A mixture of 10 mg/kg ketamine (Anesketin; Eurovet), 0·2 mg/kg midazolam (Dormicum; Roche) and 0·1 mg/kg methadone (Mephenon; Denolin) was prepared and administered into the biceps femoris muscle. After seven minutes, the animal was sufficiently anaesthetised to allow safe removal from its cage. It was positioned on the operating table, which was covered by a heated water blanket (K° thermia, RK 625; Gorman-Rupp Industries). Before intubation, the larynx was visualised with a laryngoscope and a 10 per cent lidocaine solution (Xylocaine 10 per cent Spray; Astra Pharmaceuticals) was used to desensitise the larynx. The trachea was intubated with a 4·5 mm internal diameter endotracheal tube and the animal was connected to a circle system (Spiromat 656; Drager). A 20 G catheter was placed in the left cephalic vein. The lungs were ventilated mechanically using a ventilator that was adjusted to maintain end-tidal carbon dioxide tension between 4·5 and 5·5 volume per cent. Maintenance of general anaesthesia was provided by administration of isoflurane in oxygen (Isoflo; Abott Laboratories). Vapouriser settings were between 1·5 and 0·7 volume per cent. Fentanyl (Fentanyl-Janssen; Janssen Cilag) was given as an initial bolus (2 μg/kg), followed by a continuous infusion at a rate of 2·5 μg/kg/hr, to obtain extra analgesia. Hartmann’s solution (Hartmann; Baxter) was infused at a rate of 10 ml/kg/hr. Carprofen (Rimadyl; Pfizer Animal Health) and amoxicillin (Clamoxyl; GlaxoSmithKline) were given subcutaneously and intramuscularly at respective dosages of 4 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg. Monitored parameters included body temperature (by an oesophageal probe), heart rate and rhythm (EKG; Hellige Servomed) and oxygen-haemoglobin saturation. A multianaesthetic gas analyser (Capnomac Ultima; Datex Engstrom Instrumentation) constantly measured the following parameters: inspiratory and end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration, inspiratory oxygen fraction, end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration and respiratory rate. Arterial blood pressure was monitored non-invasively every 15 minutes using an oscillometric device (NSAIS Memo Print; Matsushita Electric Works) with a cuff placed midway between the carpus and the elbow. Eyelid reflexes and jaw muscle tone were regularly checked at 15 minute intervals. The changes in haemodynamic variables and temperature are given in Table 1. On close inspection of the injured hand, the absence of the distal phalanges of the three central fingers was noted. The middle phalanx of the index finger was covered with dry, parchment-like necrotic skin, and its proximal phalanx was grossly swollen. The distal condyle of the middle phalanx protruded from the tip of the middle finger. The ring finger demonstrated a significant swelling of the middle phalanx. Radiographs revealed clear signs of osteomyelitis in the distal condyles of the three central fingers’ distal phalanges. Amputation in the nearest normal joint was considered the best treatment option. Dorsal and palmar skin flaps were created around the injured figures. After ligation of the different blood vessels, the appropriate flexor and extensor tendons were sectioned. The index finger was subsequently amputated at the proximal interphalangeal joint and the middle and ring fingers were amputated at the metacarpophalangeal joint. The distal condyles of the exposed proximal bones were removed with rongeurs. Wound closure was performed in two layers using resorbable suture material (Maxon 2-0; Synature). To avoid suture exposure, the skin was sutured using a continuous intradermal pattern. The hand was protected with a self-adhesive bandage (Vet-Flex; Kruuse). The monkey was anaesthetised for a total of 75 minutes. Buprenorphine (Temgesic; Schering-Plough) (5 μg/kg) was injected intramuscularly 15 minutes before the end of anaesthesia. Five minutes after administration of isoflurane and fentanyl ceased, the animal was breathing spontaneously. Recovery from anaesthesia was rapid and uneventful. The endotracheal tube was left in place until the animal was swallowing 25 minutes after the operation. The primate remained under a heated cover on the surgical table until it was moving, when it was placed in its cage under an infrared lamp for close monitoring over the following 12 hours. No signs of distress were observed. Postoperative antibiotic treatment was continued using an amoxicillin-clavulanic acid combination. The monkey was returned to its normal environment within 48 hours, and it removed the bandage by itself after 10 days. The amputation stumps of the middle and ring finTime (minutes) Parameter 0 15 30 45 60 75

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Belgian wildlife

De Craeye, S., Speybroeck, N., Baert, K., Ajzenberg, D., Darde, M.L., Collinet, F., Tavernier, P., Van Gucht, S., Dorny, P., Dierick, K.