Paul Tosey

The origins and conceptualizations of ‘triple-loop’ learning: A critical review:

In the organizational learning literature a variety of concepts exists denoting some third order of organizational learning, notably that of ‘triple-loop’ learning. Despite this there has been no systematic, critical consideration of this concept or its origins, impeding both theoretical development and empirical research. Whilst ‘triple-loop learning’ has been inspired by Argyris and Schön, we establish that the term does not arise in their published work. Indeed, we argue that conceptualizations of triple-loop learning are diverse, often have little theoretical rooting, are sometimes driven by normative considerations, and lack support from empirical research. We map the major influences on these conceptualizations, including Bateson’s framework of levels of learning, and offer an original theoretical contribution that distinguishes between three conceptualizations of ‘triple-loop learning’. We also highlight implications for practice, and caution against the uncritical preference for ‘higher levels’ of learning that is sometimes discernible in the literature and in practice.

Assessing the Learning Organization: Part 1--Theoretical Foundations.

Asserts and explores the claim that further headway in substantive wide‐scale learning organization development is seriously jeopardised unless individual organizations objectively measure their progress. In part 1, a new evaluative standpoint grounded in “new science” is suggested, and foundations for two non‐traditional discriminant approaches based on this standpoint are discussed. The potential to link such assessments to business performance is evaluated. In part 2, applications of these two approaches in organizational settings are reviewed.

The Hunting of the Learning Organization A Paradoxical Journey

This article addresses the epistemology of learning, as reflected in some discourses of the learning organization. The article is inspired by, and draws substantially from, Lewis Carroll’s ‘Hunting of the Snark’. It employs a broadly systemic theoretical perspective. The article highlights relevant characteristics of Carroll’s fiction and argues for the importance of differentiation between orders of learning, following Bateson’s model of levels of learning. Building on this differentiation of orders of learning, and on the notion of the inevitable paradoxical nature of organizations, the article explores a possible conceptual integration of ‘learning’ and ‘politics’, which Easterby-Smith et al. consider desirable. A question raised is of whether experiences cited as paradigmatic of ‘the learning organization’ are most likely to be transient and emergent. The analysis questions the extent to which such states can be produced through intention and design, and therefore to what extent the wish for these to become permanent states may parallel the hunt for the Snark.

Mapping Transformative Learning The Potential of Neuro-Linguistic Programming

This article explores the application of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) as a framework through which to map transformative learning. This is original work that makes use of NLP as a methodology for inquiring into subjective experience. The authors outline issues in the theory of and research into transformative learning, introduce the field of NLP, then describe the research design for the empirical work, a longitudinal case study of a manager reflecting on experiences of organizational change. Themes resulting from the analysis comprise the following three main categories: characteristics of the output, or of the emergent understanding of the learner; characteristics of the persons inner process or journey; and characteristics of the interpersonal process between learner and facilitator. The article illustrates the application of NLP to the field of transformative learning, providing an example of its potential for empirical investigation.

Neuro-linguistic programming and learning theory: a response

In an earlier issue of this journal, Craft (2001) explored Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) in relation to a classification of learning theories. Craft also offered various observations on, and criticisms of, aspects of NLP such as its theoretical coherence, modelling, Dilts’s ‘logical levels’ and possible dissonance of NLP’s espousal of individuality in learning with its experiential emphasis. This article offers a response to Craft’s article. It describes the origins and nature of NLP, and explores its theoretical identity. NLP is portrayed here as based primarily on the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson (1972, 1979). The article offers a critique of many of the views put across in Craft’s article, and builds on her attempt to position NLP theoretically. The broad aims of this article are to offer an informed perspective on the nature of NLP; to extend the academic literature on NLP; and to develop debate about its relevance to the theory and practice of education.

Assessing the learning organization: part 2 – exploring practical assessment approaches

Asserts and explores the claim that further headway in substantive wide‐scale learning organization development is seriously jeopardised unless individual organizations objectively measure their progress. In part 1 a new evaluative standpoint grounded in “New Science” is suggested, and foundations for two non‐traditional discriminant approaches based on this standpoint are discussed. The potential to link such assessments to business performance is evaluated. In part 2, applications of these two approaches in organizational settings are reviewed.

Beyond SMART? A new framework for goal setting

This article extends currently reported theory and practice in the use of learning goals or targets with students in secondary and further education. Goal-setting and action-planning constructs are employed in personal development plans (PDPs) and personal learning plans (PLPs) and are advocated as practice within the English national policy agenda with its focus on personalisation. The article argues that frameworks widely used for goal setting and action planning by UK educational practitioners, in particular SMART targets or goals, have yet to be rigorously examined in the light of relevant theory and practice. Doing so is important given contemporary emphasis on the dimensions of the learner experience regarded by ‘learning to learn’ practitioners as underpinning effective learning in the modern classroom. The article draws from social cognitive theory and achievement goal theory, including Zimmermans criteria for appropriate goals, to suggest an alternative framework for goal or target setting – ‘well-formed outcomes’, a construct from the field of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). In comparison with SMART targets, the authors argue that well-formed outcomes offer a more rigorous and holistic approach, by taking greater account of the learners identity, affective dimensions (feelings and emotions), social relations and values, as well as encouraging mental rehearsal.

When change is no longer enough: what do we mean by “transformation” in organizational change work?

The term “transformation” is much used in the practice and literature of management and organizations. We are curious as to why there has been little challenge to or questioning of usage of the term. In this paper we identify a number of dimensions on which usage of ‘transformation’ appears to vary. This results in a tentative classification into a matrix of four types. While these clusters overlap they imply a variety of agendas, expectations and modes of working, with widely differing implications for those involved in associated change processes. The aim of the article is to stimulate debate about the idea of transformation, not to attempt to define what transformation “is”. Thus we treat this variety of usage as interesting and potentially significant, not as a problem or as an inadequacy of terminology that has to be resolved.

The Peer Learning Community in Higher Education: Reflections on Practice

SUMMARY This paper describes some experiential research into the operation of peer learning communities on the MSc in Change Agent Skills and Strategies at the University of Surrey. It argues for the acknowledgement of significant qualitative differences in current usage of the term ‘learning community’ in relation to higher education courses. Some of the educational advantages of, and institutional barriers to, a peer learning community are also indicated. The article reviews and updates earlier work in this area and introduces the concept of a ‘learning organization’. The paper identifies five key principles and it argues that these constitute defining characteristics for an authentic peer learning community, whether in an educational, business or other context.

How Effective Are Incident-Reporting Systems for Improving Patient Safety? A Systematic Literature Review.

CONTEXT Incident-reporting systems (IRSs) are used to gather information about patient safety incidents. Despite the financial burden they imply, however,little is known about their effectiveness. This article systematically reviews the effectiveness of IRSs as a method of improving patient safety through organizational learning. METHODS Our systematic literature review identified 2 groups of studies: (1)those comparing the effectiveness of IRSs with other methods of error reporting and (2) those examining the effectiveness of IRSs on settings, structures, and outcomes in regard to improving patient safety. We used thematic analysis to compare the effectiveness of IRSs with other methods and to synthesize what was effective, where, and why. Then, to assess the evidence concerning the ability of IRSs to facilitate organizational learning, we analyzed studies using the concepts of single-loop and double-loop learning. FINDINGS In total, we identified 43 studies, 8 that compared IRSs with other methods and 35 that explored the effectiveness of IRSs on settings, structures,and outcomes. We did not find strong evidence that IRSs performed better than other methods. We did find some evidence of single-loop learning, that is, changes to clinical settings or processes as a consequence of learning from IRSs, but little evidence of either improvements in outcomes or changes in the latent managerial factors involved in error production. In addition, there was insubstantial evidence of IRSs enabling double-loop learning, that is, a cultural change or a change in mind-set. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that IRSs could be more effective if the criteria for what counts as an incident were explicit, they were owned and ledby clinical teams rather than centralized hospital departments, and they were embedded within organizations as part of wider safety programs.