Paula Antunes

Ecological economics and sustainable governance of the oceans

Abstract This paper is an introduction and synthesis of the papers that appear in this special issue devoted to the sustainable governance of the oceans. The special issue contains papers on various aspects of the problem, including: the ecological and economic importance of the oceans, the problems facing the oceans from an ecological economics perspective, the links between science and policy, the rationale for sustainable ocean governance, and examples of sustainable institutions and governance structures. We developed the ‘Lisbon principles’ of sustainable governance (responsibility, scale-matching, precaution, adaptive management, full cost allocation, and participation) as a core set of guidelines for sustainable ocean governance. We then describe the major problems facing the oceans in terms of how the principles are violated, and evaluate some suggested institutions in terms of how the principles are incorporated.

The application of Geographical Information Systems to determine environmental impact significance

Abstract This paper presents a new methodology for impact assessment—SIAM (Spatial Impact Assessment Methodology)—which is based on the assumption that the importance of environmental impacts is dependent, among other things, on the spatial distribution of the effects and of the affected environment. The information generated by the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in impact identification and prediction stages of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is used in the assessment of impact significance by the computation of a set of impact indices. For each environmental component (e.g., air pollution, water resources, biological resources), impact indices are calculated based on the spatial distribution of impacts. A case study of impact evaluation of a proposed highway in Central Portugal illustrates the application of the methodology and shows its capabilities to be adapted to the particular characteristics of a given EIA problem.

Participatory Modelling in Environmental Decision-Making: The Ria Formosa Natural Park Case Study

Environmental decision-making generally involves issues of complexity, uncertainty and information feedback. The complexity of environmental problems calls for integrated and multi-disciplinary approaches, which include civil society and stakeholder groups affected by or affecting environmental decisions. This paper presents a participatory modelling framework to facilitate public and stakeholder involvement in environmental decision-making. Results from a case study in the Ria Formosa Natural Park in Portugal illustrate the process of participatory modelling. The use of the System Dynamics modelling methodology facilitates the identification of the fundamental structure underlying the processing of information flows in order to achieve the desired behaviour of environmental decisions. It sets up a collaborative environment for the involvement of stakeholders in the development and experimentation of alternative policy scenarios. Along with the achievement of a simulation model, this approach is likely to foster trust in institutions, promote team learning and increase commitment towards actions.

Integrated environmental management of the oceans

The application of integrated environmental management (IEM) as an analytical framework and general methodology to support ocean governance is suggested in this paper. IEM is described as an adaptive process, which has to consider interactively problem assessment, policy priorities, the formulation of policies and their implementation in adequate measures, taking into account the multiple perspectives of the stakeholders involved. Relevant issues related to the accomplishment of IEM tasks for marine environments are discussed and some directions for further research are identified.

Otters and fish farms in the Sado estuary: ecological and socio-economic basis of a conflict

The degree of conflict between otter conservation and fish farming was assessed at Sado estuary (SW Portugal), using ecological (otter visiting rates to fish farms and consumption of commercial fish) and socio-economic (past and current instruments and policies addressing the conflict and a social impact assessment, including a discourse analysis of relevant stakeholders) parameters. The study concerned 14 fish farms producing Sparus aurata, Dicentrarchus labrax, Solea senegalensis and Solea solea. Results indicate high visiting rates in most fish farms (average: 76%), although in only 29%, species stocked were the most consumed prey. Other marine species and freshwater prey were the basis of otter diet in the remaining fish farms. The conflict is quite consensual among most fish farmers, and the results indicate that the perceived conflict by fish farmers has an ecological basis, although there are large gaps between effective and perceived predation. No specific instruments exist in Portugal to address the conflict, but some not specifically targeted can have an effect (e.g. species protection legislation and aquaculture licensing), although with limitations to effectively contribute to its mitigation (e.g. lack of enforcement and supervision). Formulating and assessing solutions is the following step, using a participatory approach to the development and evaluation of mitigation/compensation strategies, capable of providing an effective reconciliation of the conflict.

Reviewing the role of habitat banking and tradable development rights in the conservation policy mix

Habitat banking and tradable development rights (TDR) have gained considerable currency as a way of achieving ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity and of reconciling nature conservation with economic development goals. This paper reviews the use of these instruments for biodiversity conservation and assesses their roles in the policy mix. The two instruments are compared in terms of effectiveness, cost effectiveness, social impact, institutional context and legal requirements. The role in the policy mix is discussed highlighting sequential relationships, as well as complementarities or synergies, redundancy and conflicts with other instruments, such as biodiversity offsets and land-use zoning. Habitat banking and TDR have the potential to contribute to biodiversity conservation objectives and attain cost-effective solutions with positive social impacts on local communities and landowners. They can also help to create a new mind-set more favourable to public-private cooperation in biodiversity conservation. At the same time, these policy instruments face a number of theoretical and implementation challenges, such as additionality and equivalence of offsets, endurance of land-use planning regulations, monitoring of offset performance, or time lags between restoration and resulting conservation benefits. A clear, enforceable regulatory approach is a prerequisite for the success of habitat banking and TDR. In return, these schemes provide powerful incentives for compliance with regulatory norms and ensure a more equitable allocation of the benefits and costs of land-use controls and conservation. Environmentally harmful subsidies in other policy sectors as well as alternative offset options, however, reduce the attractiveness and effectiveness of these instruments. Thus, the overall performance of habitat banking and TDR hinges on how they are integrated into the biodiversity conservation policy mix and fine-tuned with other sectoral policies.

Assessment of corporate sustainability: study of hybrid relations using Hybrid Bottom Line model

Corporate sustainability reporting is currently perceived by company directors and senior staff as a process with a great strategic relevance. However, although sustainability is recognized as an integrating phenomenon and part of corporate life, it is in practice often treated in a one-dimensional manner. There is also a paucity of research specifically aimed at assessing sustainability report in the broad sense. The objectives of this article are therefore to analyse and evaluate reported information (indicators) based on the Global Reporting Initiative guidelines and to select and examine the most promising two-dimensional hybrid relations to enable the evaluation of company performance and its position towards practiced sustainability. The 2011 sustainability reports of 85 companies of different sizes and economic sectors from 36 countries were analysed. On the one hand, it became clear that companies focus their attention on ‘anchor’ indicators and, consequently, there is a low level of representativity in the number of integrations. Performance evaluation, on the other hand, has proved to be a useful process with the potential to trigger the implementation of prospective change. It is, therefore, important that decision-makers may consider including hybrid indicators in the preparation of regulations and guidelines.

Hybrid Bottom Line: another perspective on the sustainability of organizations

In recent years, there has been a growing concern and an increasing number of proactive initiatives from various stakeholders on issues related to the environment, social matters, and economic aspects and this has been the main driving force toward sustainability. However, most players that are deeply involved with environmental and social agendas indicate that these actions have been more of a temporary palliative for the current unsustainability problems than real structural solutions, especially in what concerns the relationship between short-term actions and long-term structural planning. Even though the general literature on sustainability is comprehensive, there is a paucity of papers which look at it at the organizational level, and under a cross-sectoral perspective. This paper is an attempt to address this gap. It presents the concept of ‘Hybrid Bottom Line’ as a new perspective in understanding and sustainability at the organizational level.

Engaging Stakeholders in Environmental and Sustainability Decisions with Participatory System Dynamics Modeling

Modeling with “problem-owners” is one of the defining features of system dynamics. Participatory system dynamics modeling aims at involving stakeholders in the conceptualization, specification, and synthesis of knowledge and experience into a useful model, for the purpose of addressing dynamic complexity of socio-ecological problems. This chapter starts by introducing the system dynamics method and the fundamental concepts of feedback, nonlinearities, and time delays. Qualitative and quantitative tools for building system dynamics models are introduced, namely causal loop and stock-and-flow diagrams. The chapter proceeds by describing and illustrating participatory modeling approaches based on this method. The main stages and activities of a generic participatory modeling process are presented, followed by an illustrative case study conducted in the Ria Formosa Natural Park, in Portugal. This experience shows how participatory modeling with system dynamics provides a knowledge-sharing platform wherein the modeling steps are embedded in broader processes of stakeholder participation in environmental assessment, planning, and management. The concluding section explores the potential for combining participatory modeling with visioning and multi-criteria decision tools in integrative modeling platforms. This opens the possibilities for further exploring the role of participatory system dynamics modeling in promoting active stakeholder engagement in environmental and sustainability decisions.

Reconciliation of the Conflict Between Otters and Fish Farmers

In Portugal coastal fish farming is a growing economic activity receiving financial incentives from the EU Community Structural Policy as a response to the decrease of sea fish stocks. At the same time Portugal is known to hold one of the most viable otter populations in Europe, setting the ground for a conflict scenario between fish farmers and conservationists. The Reconciliation Action Plan presented here, and illustrated by the study—case of Sado estuary, is structured in three phases, outlining respectively the ecological and socio-economic contexts of the conflict, the following assessments, and the resulting recommendations applicable to this conflict for successful reconciliation. Using ecological and socio-economic parameters, the study concerned 14 estuarine fish farms. Results indicate high visiting rates in most fish farms although only in few, species stocked were the most consumed prey. The conflict was quite consensual among fish farmers, although large gaps between effective and perceived predation were identified. No specific instruments exist in Portugal to address the conflict, but some not specifically targeted can have an effect, although with limitations to effectively contribute to its mitigation. Formulating solutions is the following step, using a participatory approach to the development and evaluation of mitigation/compensation strategies, capable of providing an effective reconciliation of the conflict.