Paula K. Dunbar

2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami data available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Geophysical Data Center

On 11 March 2011, at 05:46:24 UTC, a magnitude 9.0 Mw earthquake occurred near the east coast of Honshu, Japan. The earthquake generated a tsunami with wave heights up to 38.9 m. The earthquake and tsunami caused almost 20,000 deaths and missing in Japan. The tsunami was observed all over the Pacific Ocean and caused additional deaths in Indonesia and California, USA. The earthquake and tsunami also caused the worst nuclear emergency since Chernobyl. The damage costs resulting from the earthquake and tsunami in Japan will be between 16 and 25 trillion yen. The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) and co-located World Data Center for Geophysics maintain a global historical eventdatabase of tsunamis, significant earthquakes, and significant volcanic eruptions (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazards/). As of 3 October 2011, NGDC has collected 288 tide gauge observations, 34 Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART®) and bottom pressure recorder (BPR) station observations, and over 5,000 eyewitness reports and post-tsunami field survey measurements. These data will be useful for understanding and modelling tsunami generation, propagation, and inundation on land.

Long-Term Tsunami Data Archive Supports Tsunami Forecast, Warning, Research, and Mitigation

In response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the United States began a careful review and strengthening of its programs aimed at reducing the consequences of tsunamis. Several reports and calls to action were drafted, including the Tsunami Warning and Education Act (Public Law 109–424) signed into law by the President in December 2006. NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) and co-located World Data Center for Geophysics and Marine Geology (WDC-GMG) maintain a national and international tsunami data archive that fulfills part of the P.L. 109–424. The NGDC/WDC-GMG long-term tsunami data archive has expanded from the original global historical event databases and damage photo collection, to include tsunami deposits, coastal water-level data, DART™ buoy data, and high-resolution coastal DEMs. These data are used to validate models, provide guidance to warning centers, develop tsunami hazard assessments, and educate the public about the risks from tsunamis. In this paper we discuss current steps and future actions to be taken by NGDC/WDC-GMG to support tsunami hazard mitigation research, to ultimately help save lives and improve the resiliency of coastal communities.

Do the 2010 Haiti and Chile earthquakes and tsunamis indicate increasing trends

Recent analysis of historical data shows that four of the top ten most deadly earthquakes and tsunamis since 1701 occurred in the last decade, including the 2004 Indian Ocean (Sumatra) and 2010 Haiti events. The magnitude 8.8 2010 Chile earthquake was the fifth largest earthquake ever recorded. These events generate questions about the frequency and severity of geologic natural hazards worldwide. The National Geophysical Data Center and co-located World Data Center for Geophysics and Marine Geology maintain a global historical event database of tsunamis, significant earthquakes, and significant volcanic eruptions (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazards/). Analysis of the database revealed that while the total number of magnitude 7.5 earthquakes per decade since 1901 has remained consistent, the last decade has experienced some of the most devastating geologic events in history. Until 2010, the most deadly event in the Caribbean was the 1902 eruption of Pelee that caused 28 000 deaths. While devastating, this event is dwarfed by the 230 000 deaths that resulted from the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The 2010 Chile earthquake is among the top ten most deadly earthquakes and tsunamis in the entire history of Chile. While the database does not provide answers as to why these recent events are so deadly, the analysis reinforces the need for increasing our understanding of earthquakes and tsunamis in all regions of the world. As the global population continues to increase, placing more people at risk, it is important to dedicate resources to mitigate against the effects of such natural hazards.

Earthquake Loss Estimation for India Based on Macroeconomic Indicators

Preliminary results from the 2001 India census indicate that the population is now 1,027,015,247 [1], making India the second most populous country in the world [2]. The United Nations projects that by the year 2050, India will be the most populated country in the world with over 1.5 billion people [2]. India has also experienced some of the most devastating earthquakes ever recorded. Examples of earthquakes within the last 100 years and numbers of fatalities and damage are listed in Table 1 [3]. To reduce deaths and economic loss from earthquakes in India, it is important to understand where areas of high population density and high seismic hazard intersect.

Global tsunami deposits database

The National Geophysical Data Center and co-located World Data Center for Geophysics and Marine Geology provide integrated access to historical tsunami event, deposit, and proxy data. Historical events are important for understanding the frequency and intensity of relatively recent tsunamis. Deposit data collected during post-tsunami field surveys provide information on tsunami erosion, sedimentation, flow depths, inundation, and run-up. Deposit data from prehistoric tsunami events extend the record to pre-recorded times, constrain tsunami recurrence intervals, and estimate the minimum magnitude of tsunami inundation. Proxies indicate that an event capable of producing a tsunami occurred, but are not direct evidence of a tsunami. All of these data are used to develop tsunami hazard assessments, provide guidance to warning centers, validate models, inform community preparedness efforts, and educate the public about tsunami risks.

A protocol for coordinating post-tsunami field reconnaissance efforts in the USA

In the aftermath of a catastrophic tsunami, much is to be learned about tsunami generation and propagation, landscape and ecological changes, and the response and recovery of those affected by the disaster. Knowledge of the impacted area directly helps response and relief personnel in their efforts to reach and care for survivors and for re-establishing community services. First-hand accounts of tsunami-related impacts and consequences also help researchers, practitioners, and policy makers in other parts of the world that lack recent events to better understand and manage their own societal risks posed by tsunami threats. Conducting post-tsunami surveys and disseminating useful results to decision makers in an effective, efficient, and timely manner is difficult given the logistical issues and competing demands in a post-disaster environment. To facilitate better coordination of field-data collection and dissemination of results, a protocol for coordinating post-tsunami science surveys was developed by a multi-disciplinary group of representatives from state and federal agencies in the USA. This protocol is being incorporated into local, state, and federal post-tsunami response planning through the efforts of the Pacific Risk Management ‘Ohana, the U.S. National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program, and the U.S. National Plan for Disaster Impact Assessments. Although the protocol was designed to support a coordinated US post-tsunami response, we believe it could help inform post-disaster science surveys conducted elsewhere and further the discussion on how hazard researchers can most effectively operate in disaster environments.

Integrated Tsunami Data for Better Hazard Assessments

With nearly 230,000 fatalities, the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was the deadliest tsunami in history, illustrating the importance of developing basin-wide warning systems. Key to creating these systems is easy access to quality-controlled, verified data on past tsunamis: Warning centers, emergency managers, and modelers need to know if and when similar events have occurred. Following the 2004 tsunami, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) began examining all aspects of the tsunami data archive to help answer questions regarding the frequency and severity of past tsunamis. Historical databases span insufficient time to reveal a regions full tsunami hazard, so a global database of citations to articles on tsunami deposits was added to the archive. NGDC further expanded the archive to include high-resolution tide gauge data, deep-ocean sensor data, and digital elevation models used for propagation and inundation. NGDC continuously reviews data for accuracy, making modifications as new information is obtained.

Preliminary 2013 Solomon Islands Earthquake and Tsunami Data Report and Historical Retrospective

On 6 February 2013, at 01:12:27 UTC, a magnitude Mw 8.0 earthquake occurred at 10.738° S, 165.138° E, depth 29 km, in the Santa Cruz Islands region, Solomon Islands. The earthquake generated a tsunami that was observed throughout the entire Pacific Ocean. Maximum wave heights up to 3 m were observed on Nendo Island, located approximately 75 km east of the epicenter. On the islands of Malo, Nendo, Nibanga Noi, and Tomotu Niabona, the tsunami caused 11 deaths, 14 injuries, and damaged or destroyed more than 700 houses. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) and collocated World Data Service (WDS) for Geophysics maintains the global tsunami archive, providing integrated access to tsunami event observational, instrumental, and socio-economic impact data. This archive incorporates the historical tsunami database, imagery, raw and processed U.S. coastal tide gauge, and tsunameter data including Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART®) relevant to a tsunami event. The historical tsunami database includes information on the tsunami source, maximum wave heights, and socio-economic effects such as deaths and damage. NGDC works in collaboration with the UNESCO/IOC – NOAA International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) to collect post-tsunami event information. As of 20 February 2013, NGDC has collected maximum tsunami amplitudes from 62 tide gauge observations, eight tsunameter and bottom pressure recorder (BPR) station observations, and 25 field survey and eyewitness reports for this event. Preliminary processing of tide gauge and tsunameter time series data revealed that the tsunami lasted between 6 and 9 h after arrival at the tsunameters located in the western Pacific and at the Pacific Island tide gauges. This paper presents a review of historical tsunamis in the Solomon Islands region and describes the data collected and processed for the 6 February 2013 earthquake and tsunami.

NOAA’s Historical Tsunami Event Database, Raw and Processed Water Level Data, and Model Output Relevant to the 11 March 2011 Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami

On 11 March 2011, a magnitude 9.0 Mw earthquake occurred near the east coast of Honshu Island, Japan. The earthquake generated a tsunami with wave heights up to 40 m triggering a response from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA is the lead federal agency responsible for tsunami warnings issuance, technology innovation, research, and mitigation for the United States. These activities are matrixed across several closely integrated bureaus, including the National Weather Service National Data Buoy Center, Tsunami Warning Centers, and UNESCO/IOC – NOAA International Tsunami Information Center; the National Ocean Service Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory; and the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). Each of these bureaus work together to improve tsunami forecasting and thereby protect lives. Immediately following the March 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami, all NOAA offices were involved in complimentary tsunami activities. In this paper, we describe the status of data associated with this tsunami event, review the processing and availability of tide gauge and tsunameter data, including Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART®) and discuss the uses of these data in tsunami models. The basic data in the NGDC historical event databases include: date, time, event location, magnitude of the phenomenon, and socio-economic information such as the total number of fatalities and dollar damage estimates. The tsunami database includes additional information on runups (locations where tsunami waves were observed by eyewitnesses, post-tsunami field surveys, tide gauges, or deep ocean sensors). Therefore, an introduction and summary of the effects of the earthquake and tsunami is also included.