Pavel Veselý

The role of the tissue microenvironment in the regulation of cancer cell motility and invasion

During malignant neoplastic progression the cells undergo genetic and epigenetic cancer-specific alterations that finally lead to a loss of tissue homeostasis and restructuring of the microenvironment. The invasion of cancer cells through connective tissue is a crucial prerequisite for metastasis formation. Although cell invasion is foremost a mechanical process, cancer research has focused largely on gene regulation and signaling that underlie uncontrolled cell growth. More recently, the genes and signals involved in the invasion and transendothelial migration of cancer cells, such as the role of adhesion molecules and matrix degrading enzymes, have become the focus of research. In this review we discuss how the structural and biomechanical properties of extracellular matrix and surrounding cells such as endothelial cells influence cancer cell motility and invasion. We conclude that the microenvironment is a critical determinant of the migration strategy and the efficiency of cancer cell invasion.

The structure of invadopodia in a complex 3D environment.

Invadopodia and podosomes have been intensively studied because of their involvement in the degradation of extracellular matrix. As both structures have been studied mostly on thin matrices, their commonly reported shapes and characteristics may differ from those in vivo. To assess the morphology of invadopodia in a complex 3D environment, we observed invadopodial formation in cells grown on a dense matrix based on cell-free dermis. We have found that invadopodia differ in morphology when cells grown on the dermis-based matrix and thin substrates are compared. The cells grown on the dermis-based matrix display invadopodia which are formed by a thick protruding base rich in F-actin, phospho-paxillin, phospho-cortactin and phosphotyrosine signal, from which numerous thin filaments protrude into the matrix. The protruding filaments are composed of an F-actin core and are free of phospho-paxillin and phospho-cortactin but capped by phosphotyrosine signal. Furthermore, we found that a matrix-degrading activity is localized to the base of invadopodia and not along the matrix-penetrating protrusions. Our description of invadopodial structures on a dermis-based matrix should greatly aid the development of new criteria for the identification of invadopodia in vivo, and opens up the possibility of studying the invadopodia-related signaling in a more physiological environment.

Migrastatics—Anti-metastatic and Anti-invasion Drugs: Promises and Challenges

In solid cancers, invasion and metastasis account for more than 90% of mortality. However, in the current armory of anticancer therapies, a specific category of anti-invasion and antimetastatic drugs is missing. Here, we coin the term ‘migrastatics’ for drugs interfering with all modes of cancer cell invasion and metastasis, to distinguish this class from conventional cytostatic drugs, which are mainly directed against cell proliferation. We define actin polymerization and contractility as target mechanisms for migrastatics, and review candidate migrastatic drugs. Critical assessment of these antimetastatic agents is warranted, because they may define new options for the treatment of solid cancers.

Drugs for solid cancer: the productivity crisis prompts a rethink

Despite remarkable progress in cancer-drug discovery, the delivery of novel, safe, and sustainably effective products to the clinic has stalled. Using Src as a model, we examine key steps in drug development. The preclinical evidence on the relationship between Src and solid cancer is in sharp contrast with the modest anticancer effect noted in conventional clinical trials. Here, we consider Src inhibitors as an example of a promising drug class directed to invasion and metastasis and identify roadblocks in translation. We question the assumption that a drug-induced tumor shrinkage in preclinical and clinical studies predicts a successful outcome. Our analysis indicates that the key areas requiring attention are related, and include preclinical models (in vitro and mouse models), meaningful clinical trial end points, and an appreciation of the role of metastasis in morbidity and mortality. Current regulations do not reflect the natural history of the disease, and may be unrelated to the key complications: local invasion, metastasis, and the development of resistance. Alignment of preclinical and clinical studies and regulations based on mechanistic trial end points and platforms may help in overcoming these roadblocks. Viewed kaleidoscopically, most elements necessary and sufficient for a novel translational paradigm are in place.

System for coherence-controlled holographic microscopy of living cells

Coherence Controlled Holographic Microscopy (CCHM) is a novel holographic technique for quantitative-phasecontrast (QPC) biological observations particularly of living cells. Owing to the ordinary (low coherence) illumination source, the CCHM images are of low noise, deprived of coherence noise (speckles) and the lateral resolution is improved by a factor of 2 compared to classic holographic microscopes. Long-lasting time-lapse experiments require elimination of the CCHM optical system instability in order to achieve precise QPC measurement and to maintain correct CCHM adjustment for its low-coherence operation. The critical part of CCHM is the interferometer, which is very sensitive to temperature fluctuations and air turbulences. The temperature stabilization of the whole microscope without air turbulences is therefore required to provide stability for long-term observations of living cells. Novel heated microscope box and stage designed and constructed for this purpose are described in the paper. The system maintains a constant temperature of both the microscope and of the sample set to 37 °C thus providing optimal living conditions for living human and animal cells. The system is completed with a novel flow-chamber for living-cells accommodation during observation. A service of the system to CCHM is demonstrated by a series of pictures of growing cells.

Quantitative phase imaging unravels new insight into dynamics of mesenchymal and amoeboid cancer cell invasion

Observation and analysis of cancer cell behaviour in 3D environment is essential for full understanding of the mechanisms of cancer cell invasion. However, label-free imaging of live cells in 3D conditions is optically more challenging than in 2D. Quantitative phase imaging provided by coherence controlled holographic microscopy produces images with enhanced information compared to ordinary light microscopy and, due to inherent coherence gate effect, enables observation of live cancer cells’ activity even in scattering milieu such as the 3D collagen matrix. Exploiting the dynamic phase differences method, we for the first time describe dynamics of differences in cell mass distribution in 3D migrating mesenchymal and amoeboid cancer cells, and also demonstrate that certain features are shared by both invasion modes. We found that amoeboid fibrosarcoma cells’ membrane blebbing is enhanced upon constriction and is also occasionally present in mesenchymally invading cells around constricted nuclei. Further, we demonstrate that both leading protrusions and leading pseudopods of invading fibrosarcoma cells are defined by higher cell mass density. In addition, we directly document bundling of collagen fibres by protrusions of mesenchymal fibrosarcoma cells. Thus, such a non-invasive microscopy offers a novel insight into cellular events during 3D invasion.

5-fluorouracil Toxicity Mechanism Determination in Human Keratinocytes: in vitro Study on HaCaT Cell Line

5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and capecitabine therapy is often accompanied by palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia (PPE) which is manifestation of 5-FU toxicity in keratinocytes. The main mechanisms of 5-FU action are thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition which can be abrogated by thymidine and strengthened by calciumfolinate (CF) and incorporation of fluorouridinetriphosphate into RNA which can be abrogated by uridine. For proper PPE treatment 5-FU mechanism of action in keratinocytes needs to be elucidated. We used the 5-FU toxicity modulators uridine, thymidine and CF to discover the mechanism of 5-FU action in human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT. To measure the cellular viability, we used MTT test and RTCA test. CF did not augment 5-FU toxicity and 5-FU toxicity was weakened by uridine. Therefore, the primary mechanism of 5-FU toxicity in keratinocytes is 5-FU incorporation into RNA. The uridine protective effect cannot fully develop in the presence of CF. Thymidine addition to 5-FU and uridine treated cells not only prevents the toxicity-augmenting CF effect but it also prolongs the 5-FU treated cells survival in comparison to uridine only. Therefore, it can be assumed that in the presence of uridine the 5-FU toxicity mechanism is switched from RNA incorporation to TS inhibition. Although particular 5-FU toxicity mechanisms were previously described in various cell types, this is the first time when various combinations of pyrimidine nucleosides and CF were used for 5-FU toxicity mechanism elucidation in human keratinocytes. We suggest that for PPE treatment ointment containing uridine and thymidine should be further clinically tested.

Holographic microscopy in low coherence

Low coherence of the illumination substantially improves the quality of holographic and quantitative phase imaging (QPI) by elimination of the coherence noise and various artefacts and by improving the lateral resolution compared to the coherent holographic microscopy. Attributes of coherence-controlled holographic microscope (CCHM) designed and built as an off-axis holographic system allowing QPI within the range from complete coherent to incoherent illumination confirmed these expected advantages. Low coherence illumination also furnishes the coherence gating which constraints imaging of some spatial frequencies of an object axially thus forming an optical section in the wide sense. In this way the depth discrimination capability of the microscope is introduced at the price of restricting the axial interval of possible numerical refocusing. We describe theoretically these effects for the whole range of illumination coherence. We also show that the axial refocusing constraints can be overcome using advanced mode of imaging based on mutual lateral shift of reference and object image fields in CCHM. Lowering the spatial coherence of illumination means increasing its numerical aperture. We study how this change of the illumination geometry influences 3D objects QPI and especially the interpretation of live cells QPI in terms of the dry mass density measurement. In this way a strong dependence of the imaging process on the light coherence is demonstrated. The theoretical calculations and numerical simulations are supported by experimental data including a chance of time-lapse watching of live cells even in optically turbid milieu.

Coherence-controlled holographic microscopy for live-cell quantitative phase imaging

In this paper we present coherence-controlled holographic microscopy (CCHM) and various examples of observations of living cells including combination of CCHM with fluorescence microscopy. CCHM is a novel technique of quantitative phase imaging (QPI). It is based on grating off-axis interferometer, which is fully adapted for the use of incoherent illumination. This enables high-quality QPI free from speckles and parasitic interferences and lateral resolution of classical widefield microscopes. Label-free nature of QPI makes CCHM a useful tool for long-term observations of living cells. Moreover, coherence-gating effect induced by the use of incoherent illumination enables QPI of cells even in scattering media. Combination of CCHM with common imaging techniques brings the possibility to exploit advantages of QPI while simultaneously identifying the observed structures or processes by well-established imaging methods. We used CCHM for investigation of general parameters of cell life cycles and for research of cells reactions to different treatment. Cells were also visualized in 3D collagen gel with the use of CCHM. It was found that both the cell activity and movement of the collagen fibers can be registered. The method of CCHM in combination with fluorescence microscopy was used in order to obtain complementary information about cell morphology and identify typical morphological changes associated with different types of cell death. This combination of CCHM with common imaging technique has a potential to provide new knowledge about various processes and simultaneously their confirmation by comparison with known imaging method.

Quantitative phase imaging through scattering media

Coherence-controlled holographic microscope (CCHM) is an off-axis holographic system. It enables observation of a sample and its quantitative phase imaging with coherent as well as with incoherent illumination. The spatial and temporal coherence can be modified and thus also the quality and type of the image information. The coherent illumination provides numerical refocusing in wide depth range similarly to a classic coherent-light digital holographic microscopy (HM). Incoherent-light HM is characterized by a high quality, coherence-noise-free imaging with up to twice higher resolution compared to coherent illumination. Owing to an independent, free of sample reference arm of the CCHM the low spatial light coherence induces coherence-gating effect. This makes possible to observe specimen also through scattering media. We have described theoretically and simulated numerically imaging of a two dimensional object through a scattering layer by CCHM using the linear systems theory. We have investigated both strongly and weakly scattering media characterized by different amount of ballistic and diffuse light. The influence of a scattering layer on the quality of a phase signal is discussed for both types of the scattering media. A strong dependence of the imaging process on the light coherence is demonstrated. The theoretical calculations and numerical simulations are supported by experimental data gained with model samples, as well as real biologic objects particularly then by time-lapse observations of live cells reactions to substances producing optically turbid emulsion.