Penelope Gardner-Chloros

Compound verbs in codeswitching: Bilinguals making do?

This paper builds on an earlier one (Gardner-Chloros & Edwards, 2004), where we pointed to various problems underlying the search for grammatical constraints on codeswitching (CS), these problems being largely derived from the assumption that CS is the sum of two finite and discrete systems which together make up the competence of the bilingual speaker. Here we look more closely at the type of grammatical knowledge involved in intrasentential CS, by examining a widely attested structure in CS, bilingual compound verbs (BCVs). We consider the properties of compound verbs in general, including in monolingual contexts, their significance in the CS literature, notably for the notion of Matrix Language, and their implications for an understanding of bilingual grammars, broadly defined. We conclude that this widespread feature of bilingual speech is more than a convenient frame for inserting foreign words, and should be seen as part of a more general verb-formation process. The types of linguistic knowledge which allow such formations to emerge are based on what Sebba (1998) has called conceptual work, rather than on the simple interaction of two linguistic systems as such. We list a number of factors to be taken into account in trying to identify a CS grammar, within which idiolect, metalinguistic knowledge and community norms are particularly significant.

Parallel patterns? A comparison of monolingual speech and bilingual codeswitching discourse

Abstract The extensive work done on the structure of monolingual discourse is now paralleled by a strong tradition of studies of the conversational functions of bilingual codeswitching (Gumperz, 1982; Myers-Scotton, 1993a; Auer, 1998a). So far, however, no direct comparisons have been made between the two. In this paper we compare the way in which four common conversational functions are realised (a) monolingually and (b) through codeswitching by members of a Punjabi and English-speaking network in London. The samples are thus ideally matched - the same speakers in the same context - and we establish that codeswitching may be used in two ways within these conversations. On the one hand it may take the place of monolingual ways of marking significant moves in the conversation (e.g. emphasis, change in voice quality), or add itself to these to reinforce the effect. On the other hand it can be used as a further dimension to the monolingual means which are available, allowing the speakers to introduce structural contrasts, manage the conversational ‘floor’, or highlight the different connotations of each variety as a counterpoint to the referential meaning of their utterance.

Code-switching and the sociolinguistic gender pattern

In this paper we test the widely reported finding that women use more Standard and fewer nonstandard forms than men in relation to bilingual code-switched data. First we review the principal explanations that have been offeredfor this pattern within monolingual data setst concluding that the sex ofthe Speaker is not in itself determinant, but that numerous other factors that tie in with gender roles must be considered. We then review a few studies of code-switching where gender differences are apparent and present the results of a small-scale study of gender differences in codeswitching in Punjabi and Greek-Cypriot communities in Britain. Although code-switching is generally considered a nonstandard form of speech, there is no consistent pattern of sex differentiation emerging from the bilingual data. This reinforces our contention that fur ther factors, including the r ole of nonstandard varieties in particular subgroups and types of discourse, need to be considered inpreference to blanket explanations basedon gender.

Vernacular literacy: a re-evaluation

Illiteracy problems are worldwide, and growing. Political and economic factors are often in conflict over which language to use for basic education and how it should be taught. There is increasing pressure on the resources available for using literacy in coping with the rapid population increase, the spread of disease, and poor development. The editors and contributors to this volume are members of The International Group for the Study of Language Standardization and the Vernacularization of Literacy (IGLSVL), with unrivalled direct personal experience of literacy and language problems in the second half of the twentieth century. The contributors take the UNESCO publication, The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education, as their starting point. Published in 1953, this work was optimistic about the future of literacy. The contributors assess the nature and significance of the events that have taken place since then, providing a global overview. The discussions are supported by case-studies of campaigns to promote vernacular languages and examples of how people relate to their languages in different cultures. Most importantly, they question traditional notions of, and provide a non-Western perspective on, the uses and value of literacy.

Language Attitudes and Use in a Transplanted Setting: Greek Cypriots in London

In this paper we explore language attitudes and use in the Greek Cypriot community in London, England. Our study is based on an earlier survey carried out in Nicosia, Cyprus and we compare attitudes to language and reported language use in the two communities. We thereby highlight the significance of sociolinguistic variables on similar groups of speakers. We further extend our investigation to include codeswitching practices in the London community. Analysis of language attitudes and use within the Greek-Cypriot population of London, and comparisons with findings in Nicosia, reflect symbolic forces operating in the two contexts. Despite obvious differences between the two communities, (most obviously the official languages and distinct cultural backgrounds of the two nations), the Greek Cypriot Dialect continues to play an active role in both. English is however the ‘default choice’ for young Cypriots in the UK and Standard Modern Greek occupies a much more limited role than in Cyprus. It is argued that differences in language attitudes and use can be interpreted in light of different market forces operating in the nation (i.e. Cyprus) and the Diaspora (i.e. UK).

Code-switching and pausing: an interdisciplinary study

This study considers code-switching (CS) and pausing in two sociolinguistically distinct groups in London and Cyprus, bilingual in Greek-Cypriot Dialect (GCD) and English. The characteristics of their speech are examined both in monolingual and bilingual modes (Grosjean, 2001). It was hypothesised that in London Greek-Cypriots, where CS is a ‘default mode’, pausing behaviour would be affected by the same factors as in monolinguals, but not by CS. In Cyprus, on the other hand, where CS serves specific discourse functions, overall fluency was expected to be negatively affected by the more marked character of the alternation. Results revealed that CS has no significant effect on pausing in either context. Conversational motives, along with lexical, grammatical and processing issues, are the determining factors in bilingual, as well as monolingual, pausing. Despite the lack of difference found here between the two groups, we conclude that sociolinguistic and discourse variables should form an essential element in attempts to model bilingual speech production.

Coding and analysing multilingual data: the LIDES project

Over the last few decades, the study of bilingual and plurilingual talk has been an important focus for linguists. Data have been collected through projects, large and small, in many countries and involving many different languages and dialects. This has been in the form of monographs describing particular linguistic situations where codeswitching (CS) is prevalent (Bentahila, 1983; Agnihotri, 1987; Gibbons, 1987; Heath, 1989; Nortier, 1990; Gardner-Chloros, 1991; Myers- Scotton, 1993a; Sebba, 1993; Treffers-Daller, 1994; Haust, 1995; Backus, 1996; Halmari, 1997; Zentella, 1997; McCormick, 2002; Nivens, 2002). Two books have been devoted to the grammatical aspects of CS (Myers- Scotton, 1993b; Muysken, 2000), as well as a further volume by Myers- Scotton (2002) developing her grammatical theory in the broader context of language contact. Chapters or sections have been devoted to CS in the principal volumes on bilingualism and language contact which include Romaine’s Bilingualism (1994), Coulmas’s Handbook of Sociolinguistics (1997), Hamers and Blanc’s Bilinguality and Bilingualism (2000), Li Wei (2000), Thomason (2001), Clyne (2003). A number of edited collections and special issues of journals have been devoted to different aspects of CS (Heller, 1988; Eastman, 1992; Milroy and Muysken, 1995; Auer, 1998; Jacobson, 1998; and Dolitsky, 2000).

Towards standardizing and sharing bilingual data

We describe a project (the LIPPS project) whose purpose is to set up a computerized database of bilingual texts to be used by researchers in the field of “language interaction” (i.e., codeswitching, borrowing, and other outcomes of contact between varieties). Current work includes an adaptation of the CHILDES system(MacWhinney,1995) to take account of the different needs of researchers in this area, for example, solving the problems of distinguishing, coding, and representing language interaction phenomena; providing a gloss / translation in user-friendly format; and developing qualitative as well as quantitative tools for comparing data-sets. Problems and some advantages of such a comparison are illustrated through a pilot project conducted by Gardner-Chloros using two sets of data: Greek-Cypriot/English data and Punjabi /English. Practical problems included giving transcribers/coders the necessary training in using the system and ensuring a consistent approach. Coding problems derived from interlinguistic differences were also highlighted. Clear advantages ensued, however, from being able to compare the type/quantity of codeswitches and so forth across data-sets, as this allows an assessment of the relative weight of linguistic and sociolinguistic factors in determining the form of language interaction.

Code-switching and multilingualism in literature

Code-switching in spoken modes has now been studied fairly extensively and is better understood at the conversational as well as the grammatical level. However, interest in written code-switching has developed more slowly and is still represented mainly in relation to specific periods, such as the Classical period and the medieval period, where a large number of works have now appeared. Linguists have questioned to what extent the models developed for spoken code-switching can be applied to writing, and a fortiori to literary writing. This introductory article reviews the main types of literary multilingualism and the main functions of code-switching within it. We conclude that there is at least a partial – and not inconsiderable – overlap between the functions of code-switching in spoken and written modalities.

Mind the gap: what code-switching in literature can teach us about code-switching

This article argues that contrary to sociolinguistic practice which emphasizes spontaneous speech as the main or only source of evidence, the study of literary code-switching (CS) can be relevant to an understanding of CS in general. CS is first distinguished from other forms of literary multilingualism and from borrowing. We then consider how CS fits in with the mimetic function in literary dialogue, and how its functions can be compared with those of natural speech. We will see that literary CS can provide a wealth of sociolinguistically relevant information on speech modes found in various communities, and is particularly apt to portray postcolonial tensions. More stylized CS in poetry and drama can also embody complex multicultural identities and patterns of language choice, even in the absence of strict verisimilitude.