Penelope Leach

The influence of maternal depression, caregiving, and socioeconomic status in the post-natal year on children's language development

BACKGROUND Post-natal depression is common and has been associated with adverse effects on childrens later emotional and behavioural development. The evidence for effects on childrens cognitive development is unclear but this could potentially be a major public health issue. The aim was to examine whether maternal depression and maternal caregiving during the first year of life are associated with childrens subsequent language development. METHODS One thousand two hundred and one women were recruited from antenatal and post-natal baby clinics in two areas in England, and followed up until their babies were 3 years. Mothers and children were assessed by questionnaire, interview and home observation; 999 childrens language was assessed at 36 months, although 55 were excluded principally because they had been exposed to insufficient English. RESULTS In bivariate analyses maternal depressive symptomatology in the post-natal year but not at 36 months was associated with poorer child language at 36 months; maternal caregiving, was positively associated with language. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that depression was associated with poorer caregiving but was not independently associated with language. Higher quality caregiving at 10 months was associated with better language. When the sample was split by socioeconomic factors the effects of depression on caregiving were stronger in the less advantaged group. In both groups poorer quality early caregiving predicted lower language outcome. CONCLUSIONS Post-natal depression had a negative effect on caregiving, which in turn affected language; post-natal depression did not have an additional direct effect on language. Socioeconomic factors moderated the effects of depression on caregiving. When targeting interventions at mothers with post-natal depression, it may be strategic to focus on lower socioeconomic groups at higher risk.

Experiences of childcare in England and socio‐emotional development at 36 months

In an English sample of 1016 families, use of childcare was investigated at 3, 10, 18 and 36 months. Child behaviour problems and social competence were assessed at 36 months by maternal questionnaire. There was no effect of the amount or type of childcare on disruptive behaviour at 36 months, the main predictors being maternal minority ethnic background and previous harsh maternal behaviour. Compliance and expressiveness were predicted by maternal sensitivity. Expressive behaviour was also associated with more childcare from 19 to 36 months, specifically nanny or nursery care. Overall there was no evidence of adverse consequences of childcare in the first three years, and some limited evidence of benefits.

A comparison of father–infant interaction between primary and non-primary care giving fathers

BACKGROUND This study examined the socio-demographic characteristics and attitudes of primary care giving fathers and non-primary care giving fathers and the quality of their interaction with their infants. METHOD Two groups of fathers of 11.9-month old infants were compared - 25 primary care giving fathers (20 h per week or more of sole infant care) and 75 non-primary care giving fathers - with regard to socio-demographic characteristics, attitudinal differences and father-infant interaction during play and mealtimes. The quality of father-child interaction in relation to the total number of hours of primary care provided by fathers was also examined. RESULTS Primary care giving fathers had lower occupational status and earned a smaller proportion of the family income but did not differ in educational level or attitudes compared with non-primary care giving fathers. There were no differences between the partners of the two groups of fathers on any variables, and their infants did not differ in temperament. Primary care giving fathers and their infants exhibited more positive emotional tone during play than non-primary care giving fathers, although fathers did not differ in responsivity. There were no differences between the groups during mealtimes. There was a positive association between total number of child care hours provided by all fathers and infant positive emotional tone. CONCLUSIONS Primary and non-primary care giving fathers were similar in many respects, but primary care giving fathers and their infants were happier during play. This suggests a possible link between the involvement of fathers in the care of their children and their childrens emotional state. The finding of a trend towards increased paternal happiness with increased hours of child care suggests that there may also be a gain for fathers who are more involved in the care of their infants. Further research is needed to determine whether these differences ultimately have an effect on childrens development.

The influence of different forms of early childcare on children's emotional and behavioural development at school entry

BACKGROUND Over the past few decades there has been a dramatic increase in maternal employment and, as a result, an increase in the use of non-maternal childcare in the early years. The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine, in a large representative English sample, the influence of different forms of childcare on childrens behavioural and emotional development around the age of school entry. METHODS A sample of 991 families, originally recruited when the children were 3 months old, was assessed around school entry age at 51 months. The main outcome variable was the childrens emotional and behavioural functioning, measured by questionnaire completed by both mothers and teachers. A range of repeated assessments were carried out at different time points, including direct observation of the quality of maternal caregiving and observations of the quality of non-parental care, and amount of time spent in different forms of care. RESULTS The strongest and most consistent influences on behaviour and emotional problems were derived from the home, including lower socio-demographic status, poorer maternal caregiving, parental stress/maternal mental health problems, as well as child gender (being a boy). Non-parental childcare had small effects on child outcome. One finding that did emerge was that children who spent more time in group care, mainly nursery care, were more likely to have behavioural problems, particularly hyperactivity. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that interventions to enhance childrens emotional and behavioural development might best focus on supporting families and augmenting the quality of care in the home.

Factors associated with negative emotional expression: a study of mothers of young infants

This interview study of mothers with 3‐month‐old infants sought to determine factors associated with maternal negative emotional expression regarding their infants. In a cross‐sectional study, 179 mothers were given a shortened version of the Five Minute Speech Sample technique, requesting that they speak for only 2 minutes about their child and their relationship. Negative comments about the infant, maternal health prior to and since the birth, and the impact of the infant on her life were coded. They also completed attitudinal questionnaires and reported on marital relationships and the infants health and temperament. A Caesarean section, infant illness, current maternal depressive symptoms, fussy infant temperament, and lack of enjoyment of feeding were all independently associated with negative remarks. Depression, infant illness and fussy temperament were all independent predictors of negative remarks about the infant, and Caesarean section and time in Special Care Baby Unit were independent predictors of negative remarks about maternal health and well‐being. This kind of open‐ended enquiry could be adapted for use in routine clinical contact with mothers of new infants to identify those who may need support.

Infant Care in England: Mothers' Aspirations, Experiences, Satisfaction and Caregiver Relationships.

This paper investigates non‐maternal infant care in the first year of life, examining the relationships between child care ideals, attitudinal, sociodemographic and psychological characteristics of mothers at three months postpartum and their child care experiences at 10 months. Predictors of child care use, satisfaction with non‐maternal care and confidence in the relationship and communication with caregivers are examined. Realising ideals predicted more hours of child care use, although not greater satisfaction. Those with the father or a grandparent as the caregiver were more satisfied, as were mothers with more progressive attitudes to child rearing and to maternal employment. Higher socioeconomic status mothers and those using nurseries were less satisfied. Relationships with caregivers were poorer for those who believed that maternal employment may have more negative consequences for children.