Per-Erik Liss

Female patients report on health care staff's disobedience of ethical principles

Background. Earlier studies have shown a high prevalence of abuse in health care (AHC). We hypothesized that patients might easily feel abused when staff do not follow prevailing ethical principles. Therefore we developed the Violations of Ethical Principles Questionnaire (ViolEP), with 30 examples of situations in health care where four ethical principles are disobeyed (autonomy, nonmaleficence, justice, and integrity). Respondents reported whether or not they had ever experienced each of the situations, and whether or not they had perceived that event as a violation. Research questions: 1. What proportion of female patients have ever experienced staff disobeying ethical principles in health care? 2. To what extent are such events perceived as violations? and 3. How well do perceived violations of ethical principles correspond to experiences of AHC?

Bioethical theory and practice in genetic screening for type 1 diabetes

Due to the potential ethical and psychological implications of screening, and especially inregard of screening on children without available and acceptable therapeutic measures, there is a common view that such procedures are not advisable. As part of an independent research- and bioethical case study, our aim was therefore to explore and describe bioethical issues among a representative sample of participant families (n = 17,055 children) in the ABIS (All Babies In South-east Sweden) research screening for Type 1 diabetes (IDDM).The primary aim is the identification of risk factors important for the development of diabetes and other multifactorial immune-mediated diseases. Four hundred, randomly chosen, participant mothers were asked to complete a questionnaire exploring issues of information, informed consent, bio-material, confidentiality and autonomy, and of prevention/intervention. 293 completed the questionnaire, resulting in a response rate of 73.3%. The majority of questions had the form of 6-point Likert-type response scales (1–6).We found that the majority of respondents felt calm in regard of samples and written material, and also concerning the possibility of their child in the future being identified as having high risk of developing Type 1 diabetes. An important finding concerning access and control of mainly biological data was indicated, with the respondents expressing concern for potential future use. We believe our findings indicate that this kind of empirical studies can substantially contribute to our understanding of bioethical issues of medical research involving genetics. Issues, such as safeguards ensuring theethical criteria of autonomy and respect, were emphasised by our respondents. We believe theissues brought up may promote further discussion, and do suggest issues for consideration by, among others, researchers, bioethicists and Institutional Review Boards.

Access to health care in the Scandinavian countries: ethical aspects.

The health care systems are fairly similar in theScandinavian countries. The exact details vary, but inall three countries the system is almost exclusivelypublicly funded through taxation, and most (or all)hospitals are also publicly owned and managed. Thecountries also have a fairly strong primary caresector (even though it varies between the countries),with family physicians to various degrees acting asgatekeepers to specialist services. In Denmark most ofthe GP services are free. For the patient in Norwayand Sweden there are out-of-pocket co-payments for GPconsultations, with upper limits, but consultations forchildren are free. Hospital treatment is free inDenmark while the other countries use a system without-of-pocket co-payment. There is a very strongpublic commitment to access to high quality healthcare for all. Solidarity and equality form theideological basis for the Scandinavian welfare state.Means testing, for instance, has been widely rejectedin the Scandinavian countries on the grounds thatpublic services should not stigmatise any particulargroup. Solidarity also means devoting specialconsideration to the needs of those who have lesschance than others of making their voices heard orexercising their rights. Issues of limited access arenow, however, challenging the thinking about a healthcare system based on solidarity.

The Significance of the Goal of Health Care for the Setting of Priorities

The purpose of the article is to argue for the significance of a clarified goal of health care for the setting of priorities. Three arguments are explored. First, assessment of needs becomes necessary in so far as the principle of need should guide the priority-setting. The concept of health care need includes a goal component. This component should for rational reasons be identical with the goal of health care. Second, in order to use resources efficiently it is necessary to assess the effects of health care. It is not, however, a question of assessing whether there is an effect but a question of assessing whether there is the right effect. And what constitutes the right effect can only be determined in relation to the goal of the enterprise. Third, the health sector involves several groups of actors such as politicians, administrators, doctors, nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, educationists and patients. It is common knowledge that successful teamwork requires an understanding of a common goal. The article ends with an example of a goal chosen from ethics.

Hard choices in public health : The allocation of scarce resources

Setting of priorities in healthcare is a topic of debate in several countries. This is because there is a gap between the population’s need for healthcare and available resources. Attempts have been made to eliminate or reduce the gap by, for example, improving efficiency and narrowing responsibilities. As these measures have proved insufficient, decisions must be made about how best to use the scarce resources that are available. The Swedish Government appointed a parliamentary commission in 1992 with the task of discussing the role of health services in the welfare society and highlighting the basic ethical principles by which prioritization ought to be guided.

Terms used to describe urinary tract infections--the importance of conceptual clarification.

Inaccuracies in medical language are detrimental to communication and statistics in medicine, and thereby to clinical practice, medical science and public health. The purpose of this article is to explore inconsistencies in the use of some medical terms: urinary tract infection, bacteriuria and urethral syndrome. The investigated literature was collected from medical dictionaries, textbooks, and articles indexed in Medline®. We found various practices regarding how the medical terms should be defined, and had great difficulty in interpreting the status of the statements under the heading of ‘definition’. The lesson to be learned, besides a reminder of the importance of clearly defined medical concepts, is that it must be explicitly stated whether what is presented as a definition is to be considered as defining criterion, as recognising criterion or as characteristic of the disease entity.

Empirical and normative ethics: A synthesis relating to the care of older patients

The aim of this study was to synthesize the concepts from empirical studies and analyze, compare and interrelate them with normative ethics. The International Council of Nurses (ICN) and the Health and Medical Service Act are normative ethics. Five concepts were used in the analysis; three from the grounded theory studies and two from the theoretical framework on normative ethics. A simultaneous concept analysis resulted in five outcomes: interconnectedness, interdependence, corroboratedness, completeness and good care are all related to the empirical perspective of the nurse’s interaction with the older patient, and the normative perspective, i.e. that found in ICN code and SFS law. Empirical ethics and normative ethics are intertwined according to the findings of this study. Normative ethics influence the nurse’s practical performance and could be supporting documents for nurses as professionals.

Corroborating indicates nurses’ ethical values in a geriatric ward

The aim of the study was to identify nurses’ ethical values, which become apparent through their behaviour in the interactions with older patients in caring encounters at a geriatric clinic. Descriptions of ethics in a caring practice are a problem since they are vague compared with the four principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. A Grounded Theory methodology was used. In total, 65 observations and follow-up interviews with 20 nurses were conducted, and data were analysed by constant comparative analysis. Three categories were identified: showing consideration, connecting, and caring for. These categories formed the basis of the core category: “Corroborating.” In corroborating, the focus is on the person in need of integrity and self-determination; that is, the autonomy principle. A similar concept was earlier described in regard to confirming. Corroborating deals more with support and interaction. It is not enough to be kind and show consideration (i.e., to benefit someone); nurses must also connect and care for the older person (i.e., demonstrate non-maleficence) in order to corroborate that person. The findings of this study can improve the ethics of nursing care. There is a need for research on development of a high standard of nursing care to corroborate the older patients in order to maintain their autonomy, beneficence, and non-maleficence. The principal of justice was not specifically identified as a visible nursing action. However, all older patients received treatment, care, and reception in an equivalent manner.