Per Kågeson

Toxic Heavy Metals

Science knows fairly well what metals are toxic to humans and other organisms. On that ground it is possible to conclude that heavy metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium should either be used sparsely or with such care that one can guarantee a very high rate of recycling. In a long-term perspective, however, one should expect any metal used in the technosphere to disperse and become part of the biosphere. This chapter will take a closer look at the use of cadmium, mercury and lead.

Discussion and Main Conclusions

The objective of this book is to explore possible links between economic growth and, on the other hand, resource depletion and damage to the natural environment. This is done for the OECD countries (excluding Turkey and new members). The period covered is from 1960 to 1990/95. Attempts are also made to see what the chances are of the OECD countries reaching a stage of “environmentally sustainable growth” within 15 years. This latter part of the analysis is limited to OECD Europe.

Nature Protection and Biodiversity

Flora and fauna are affected in many ways by industrial society. Habitats are under threat from urban development and the construction of roads and railways as well as from the exploitation of land for leisure and tourism. Old and new methods in agriculture and forestry are endangering many species and have indeed transformed the landscape in many places. Acidification, eutrophication and extensive use of pesticides are other threats to wildlife and nature.

A Closer Look at Transport

Transport appears to be a sector where growth often results in increasing pressure on the environment. Road traffic volumes are increasing faster than GDP, and the intensity of air traffic is growing even faster. Diagram 18:1 shows the development for road transport in EU15 during 1980 to 1993. Vehicle kilometres is in an environmental context a better indicator than tonne and passenger kilometres. The trend has resulted in modal shift towards road transport and aviation.

Depletion of Natural Resources

The previous chapter analysed the use of materials and energy in the OECD countries, but without viewing it in relation to the global situation today or the needs of tomorrow.

Delimitations and Methodology

Possible relations between economic growth and environmental destruction/resource depletion will be investigated in this report. The study will to a large extent be based on a macro-statistical approach.The main approach will in some cases be supplemented by more detailed studies, using a bottom-up approach, in which greater importance is attached to the possibilities of influencing the composition and size of consumption and the choice of raw materials and production techniques.

Pollution Abatement Costs and Economic Growth

OECD regularly publishes monographs on pollution abatement and control (PAC) expenditure. PAC is defined as “activities aimed directly at the prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution or nuisances arising as a residual of production processes or the consumption of goods and services” (OECD, 1996a). This definition excludes expenditure on natural resource management and activities for the protection of endangered species as well as expenditure for the establishment of natural parks and green belts. Expenditure for workplace protection is also excluded even when it has environmental benefits. The monograph on PAC expenditure recognises that investment and current expenditure may have positive environmental effects without being directly motivated by environmental concerns. Investment in energy-saving equipment in response to higher energy prices is one example. However, most OECD countries include in their statistics only expenditure that is directly aimed at environmental protection. OECD’s definition of PAC expenditure therefore comprises “the flow of investment and current expenditure that is directly aimed at pollution abatement and control, and which is incurred by the public sector, the business sector and private households”.

The Concept of Sustainable Development

In order to establish whether economic growth at an already high level of income gives rise to a conflict with the environment and conservation of natural resources, one must have an idea of what constitutes unacceptable changes or resource depletion. In all ages, human beings have influenced their habitat, and it is really only as hunters, fishers and gatherers of wild nuts, fruit and berries that they have had a position reasonably comparable to that of other species. Nature was already significantly affected by the very first agricultural communities, and a long succession of historic civilisations took the exploitation of nature to such lengths as to cause deforestation, erosion and desertification. Boserup (1965) has described how pressure of population forced people in different civilisations to alter the basis of their food production, at the cost of environmental impact.

Economic Growth and the Environment the Case of OECD Europe

In most of the OECD countries, emissions of certain naturally occurring substances, such as sulphur, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, phosphorus and carbon dioxide, are at levels which in the long term will lead to effects on natural ecosystems and climate. In a number of cases the emissions have been going on for such a long time that serious damage has already been demonstrated, eg. acidification and eutrophication and the effects of heavy ozone concentrations on vegetation and human health. In some of these cases, the damage to the environment may have resulted from the accumulated emissions of several decades. This, presumably, has been due to a combination of unsuitable technology, population growth and economic growth. Environmentally insufficient technology would not have been a major problem if volumes had not increased and, conversely, economic growth would not have imposed such a heavy load on the environment if the technology had been better.

Economic Growth in the Postwar Period

Historically speaking, economic growth has been slow (<0.5%/yr) and very much due to population growth. It was only with the onset of industrialisation that growth really gathered speed.