Peter Barnett

Risk factors for cerebral edema in children with diabetic ketoacidosis

BACKGROUND Cerebral edema is an uncommon but devastating complication of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Risk factors for this complication have not been clearly defined. METHODS In this multicenter study, we identified 61 children who had been hospitalized for diabetic ketoacidosis within a 15-year period and in whom cerebral edema had developed. Two additional groups of children with diabetic ketoacidosis but without cerebral edema were also identified: 181 randomly selected children and 174 children matched to those in the cerebral-edema group with respect to age at presentation, onset of diabetes (established vs. newly diagnosed disease), initial serum glucose concentration, and initial venous pH. Using logistic regression we compared the three groups with respect to demographic characteristics and biochemical variables at presentation and compared the matched groups with respect to therapeutic interventions and changes in biochemical values during treatment. RESULTS A comparison of the children in the cerebral-edema group with those in the random control group showed that cerebral edema was significantly associated with lower initial partial pressures of arterial carbon dioxide (relative risk of cerebral edema for each decrease of 7.8 mm Hg [representing 1 SD], 3.4; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.9 to 6.3; P<0.001) and higher initial serum urea nitrogen concentrations (relative risk of cerebral edema for each increase of 9 mg per deciliter [3.2 mmol per liter] [representing 1 SD], 1.7; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.2 to 2.5; P=0.003). A comparison of the children with cerebral edema with those in the matched control group also showed that cerebral edema was associated with lower partial pressures of arterial carbon dioxide and higher serum urea nitrogen concentrations. Of the therapeutic variables, only treatment with bicarbonate was associated with cerebral edema, after adjustment for other covariates (relative risk, 4.2; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.5 to 12.1; P=0.008). CONCLUSIONS Children with diabetic ketoacidosis who have low partial pressures of arterial carbon dioxide and high serum urea nitrogen concentrations at presentation and who are treated with bicarbonate are at increased risk for cerebral edema.

Intravenous Versus Oral Corticosteroids in the Management of Acute Asthma in Children

STUDY OBJECTIVE To determine whether oral corticosteroids are significantly better at preventing the need for hospital admission than i.v. corticosteroids in children with moderate to severe asthma exacerbation. METHODS We carried out a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of patients in the emergency department of a tertiary urban childrens hospital. Patients who presented to the ED with moderate to severe asthma (defined as forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1] < 60% predicted for height in patients aged 7 to 18 years and as Pulmonary Index Score [PIS] between 6 and 11 for patients aged 18 months through 6 years). Patients were randomized to receive 2 mg/kg oral methylprednisolone or 2 mg/kg i.v. methylprednisolone 30 minutes after the initial treatment with nebulized albuterol. Each patient was otherwise treated with an identical regimen of frequent nebulized albuterol and i.v. theophylline for a total of 4 hours. RESULTS Forty-nine patients were enrolled. Four hours after treatment, both groups had similar respiratory rates, oxygen saturation, PISs, and FEV1 values. Eleven of 23 patients in the oral group (48%) and 13 of 26 patients in the i.v group (50%) were admitted to the hospital (P = .88). The 90% confidence interval for the 2% cifference in admission rate to the hospital (favoring oral methylprednisolone) ranged from 21% (favoring i.v. methylpredinisolone) to 25% (favoring oral methylprednisolone). Patients discharged home demonstrated greater improvement from baseline with regard to PIS and FEV1 than patients who were admitted. Two patients in each group failed to complete the standard treatment or returned to the hospital within 48 hours of ED discharge. CONCLUSION These data suggest that for children with moderate to severe asthma exacerbation, hospital admission rates are similar in children given oral methylprednisolone and those given i.v. methylprednisolone.

High-Concentration Nitrous Oxide for Procedural Sedation in Children: Adverse Events and Depth of Sedation

OBJECTIVE. Nitrous oxide is an attractive agent for procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department; however, there are limited safety data for high-concentration continuous-flow nitrous oxide (50%–70%) and its use in young children. We set out to characterize the depth of sedation and incidence of adverse events associated with various concentrations of nitrous oxide used in a pediatric emergency department. METHODS. This was a prospective observational study of nitrous oxide use for procedural sedation and analgesia in a tertiary childrens hospital emergency department. Nitrous oxide concentration, adverse events, and sedation depth were recorded. Adverse events were categorized as mild or serious. Sedation depth was recorded on a sedation scale from 0 to 6. RESULTS. A total of 762 patients who were aged 1 to 17 years received nitrous oxide during the 2-year study period. A total of 548 (72%) received nitrous oxide 70%, and 101 (13%) received nitrous oxide 50%. Moderate or deep sedation with scores of ≤2 occurred in 3% of patients who had received nitrous oxide 70% and no patients who had received nitrous oxide 50%. Mean sedation scores were 4.4 at nitrous oxide 70% and 4.6 at nitrous oxide 50%. Sixty-three (8.3%) patients sustained 70 mild and self-resolving adverse events, most of which were vomiting (5.7%); 2 (0.2%) patients had serious adverse events. There was no significant difference in adverse events rates between nitrous oxide 70% (8.4%) and nitrous oxide 50% (9.9%). There was no significant difference in the percentage of deep sedation when children who were ≤3 years of age (2.9%) were compared with older children (2.8%). CONCLUSIONS. In this largest prospective emergency department series, high-concentration continuous-flow nitrous oxide (70%) was found to be a safe agent for procedural sedation and analgesia when embedded in a comprehensive sedation program. Nitrous oxide also seems safe in children aged 1 to 3 years.

Preprocedural fasting state and adverse events in children receiving nitrous oxide for procedural sedation and analgesia.

Study Objective: Established fasting guidelines for analgesia and sedation are difficult to follow in the emergency department (ED), and the association between preprocedural fasting and adverse events has been questioned. We characterize the fasting status of patients receiving procedural sedation and analgesia with nitrous oxide (N2O) in a pediatric ED and assess the relationship between fasting status and adverse events. Methods: A prospective case series was conducted in a childrens hospital ED over an 8-month period. Patients receiving N2O for procedural sedation and analgesia were enrolled and followed up by telephone call. Preprocedural fasting state and adverse events, as well as N2O concentration, adjunctive drugs, and deepest level of sedation, were recorded. Adverse events were analyzed in relation to fasting status. Results: Two hundred twenty children who underwent procedural sedation and analgesia with N2O were enrolled. Fasting status was obtained in 218 patients (99.1%). Of these, 155 (71.1%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 64.5%-77.0%) did not meet fasting guidelines for solids There were no serious adverse events and no episodes of aspiration (1-sided 97.5% CI, 0%-1.7%). While in the ED, 46 minor adverse events occurred in 37 patients (16.8%; 95% CI, 12.1%-22.4%). Emesis occurred in 15 patients (7%), including 4 (6.3%; 95% CI, 1.8%-15.5%) of 63 patients who met and in 11 (7.1%; 95% CI, 3.6%-12.3%) of 155 patients who did not meet fasting guidelines for solids. There was no significant difference in median fasting duration between patients with and without emesis. Conclusion: Seventy-one percent of patients undergoing ED procedural sedation and analgesia with N2O did not meet established fasting guidelines. In this series, there was no association between preprocedural fasting and emesis. There were no serious adverse events.

Comparison of two benzodiazepines used for sedation of children undergoing suturing of a laceration in an emergency department

Objectives (1) To determine if oral diazepam (POD) is as effective in sedating children less than 6 years of age for laceration repair as oral midazolam (POM) or intranasal midazolam (INM); and (2) To determine if patients stayed longer in the department after sedation when given POD for sedation. Design/Methods Block-randomized, single-blind trial. Setting Tertiary pediatric emergency department. Participants Patients 1 to 5 years old with a laceration requiring sutures were enrolled. Interventions All patients had topical anesthetic applied to the wound and were randomly assigned to POD 0.5 mg/kg, POM 1.0 mg/kg, or INM 0.4 mg/kg for sedation. Results One hundred twenty-nine patients were enrolled, 42 POD, 45 POM, and 42 INM. Each group was similar at baseline for age, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, previous laceration or sedation, anxiety score, and site of laceration. POM and POD were better tolerated than INM (P = 0.05 and 0.034), respectively. Time to sedation was significantly longer in POD (31.0 ± 9 min) than INM (26.1 ± 9 min) (P = 0.011) but there was no significant difference when comparing the other groups. However, this difference was not clinically significant. POD was significantly worse at sedating children compared with POM and INM on all four scores (ie, doctor, nurse, parent, and investigator), but INM and POM were equivalent. Total time in the department was no different between POM and INM or POM and POD, but was significantly different for POD (53.9 ± 16 min) and INM (48 ± 12 min); however, this difference was minimal. More patients were said to be drowsy at home in the POM group (51%) than the POD group (32%). Conclusions The oral route of delivery of POM and POD was better tolerated than INM. POM and INM were more effective at sedation than POD, but there was no clinical difference between any groups for time to sedation or time to discharge. More patients in the POM group had side effects after leaving the department. POD may be an alternative to POM, but a higher dose may be required, possibly with longer recovery times.

Does the use of volumetric bladder ultrasound improve the success rate of suprapubic aspiration of urine

Objective To determine whether a volumetric bladder scanner can improve the success rate of suprapubic aspiration and whether there is an optimal volume of urine required in the bladder before suprapubic aspiration should be attempted. Design Two-phase prospective study. Setting The emergency department of a tertiary children’s hospital. Subjects Children younger than 2 years who required an uncontaminated urine specimen for microscopy and culture. Methods In phase one, all patients had an ultrasound followed by suprapubic aspiration. In phase two, patients were randomized to either ultrasound or no ultrasound. Results In phase one, 37 subjects had ultrasound measurement prior to attempting suprapubic aspiration; 28 of 31 (90%) had successful suprapubic aspiration when a minimum volume of 10 mL was detected on ultrasound and no 0-mL readings were encountered. In phase two, the overall success rate of obtaining urine with the aid of the bladder scanner was 31 of 39 subjects (79%), compared with 16 of 36 subjects (44%) without ultrasound. Ultrasound was also useful in deferring an attempt when less than 10 mL of urine was noted on the scan. Conclusions The volumetric bladder scanner is a rapid, safe, and accurate device that, in this study, greatly improved the success rate of suprapubic aspiration in small children. It also helped to avoid time delays or multiple blind attempts at suprapubic aspiration by predicting volumes at which suprapubic aspiration should or should not be attempted.

A randomized controlled trial of 2 methods of immobilizing torus fractures of the distal forearm.

Objectives: Immobilization of torus fractures of the distal forearm, for 1 to 4 weeks in a slab, cast, or splint, produces good radiological and functional outcomes. This study assesses the pain associated with 2 forms of immobilization used for these injuries. Methods: A randomized controlled trial comparing fiberglass volar slab and encircling plaster-of-paris cast was conducted at a childrens hospital emergency department. Patients presenting with torus fractures of the distal forearm were enrolled and reviewed after 2 weeks of immobilization. A daily questionnaire was used during immobilization to assess pain, satisfaction, and activity state of the child. Results: Adequate data were available for 42 participants in each group. Immobilization in a volar slab was associated with the following: increased duration of pain, with a median of 6.0 days (interquartile range [IQR] 2.0-11.0) versus 3.0 days (2.0-5.0) P = 0.009, and an increased time to resumption of normal activity at 2 weeks 67% versus 95%, P = 0.001. Average daily pain severity was similar in the 2 groups (35 mm on visual analogue scale [VAS] for the cast group vs. 39 mm for the slab group), P = 0.48. Stratified analysis showed pain on enrolment of greater than 50 mm on VAS, which was a strong association for longer duration of pain in both groups, P < 0.001. Conclusions: Use of a slab may increase the duration of pain, especially in patients who had more severe pain at presentation.

Non-urgent presentations to a paediatric emergency department: parental behaviours, expectations and outcomes.

Objectives:  To identify factors that influence the attendance of children with non‐urgent medical problems to a tertiary paediatric ED and to define parental expectations of the hospital visit.

Topical lignocaine for pain relief in acute otitis media: results of a double-blind placebo-controlled randomised trial

Objective: Acute otitis media (AOM) is common in children, yet the optimal management of ear pain associated with AOM has not been well studied. We set out to determine the efficacy of topical aqueous 2% lignocaine eardrops compared with a placebo (saline) for pain relief of AOM in children. Design: Double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Setting: Tertiary children’s hospital emergency department. Patients and interventions: Children aged between 3 and 17 years with earache and AOM without evidence of perforation were eligible. Patients were randomised to receive either 2% lignocaine or saline eardrops (placebo). Main outcome measures: Pain scores were measured before and after ear-drop administration. Patient and physician-interpreted pain scores were measured by using the Bieri faces pain scale and visual analogue scale at 10, 20 and 30 minutes. The primary outcome measure was reduction in patient-measured pain scores by 50% from the baseline. Secondary outcome measures were reduction in patient- measured pain scores by 25% or by at least two points. Telephone follow-up occurred after 1 day and 1 week. Analysis was by intention to treat. Results: 63 children (31 were treated with lignocaine, 32 with placebo) aged 3 to 12 years were enrolled. The groups were demographically and clinically similar, with similar proportions having received analgesia in the preceding 4 hours. Children receiving lignocaine showed significantly lower patient-measured pain scores with a reduction by 50% from baseline at 10 minutes (RR 2.06, 95% CI 1.03–4.11, p = 0.03) and 30 minutes (RR 1.44, 95% CI 1.07–1.93, p = 0.009) but not at 20 minutes (RR 1.35 95% CI 0.88–2.06). The response to lignocaine treatment showed significantly lower patient-measured pain scores for 25% reduction at all time points and for two-point reduction at 10 minutes and favoured lignocaine at 20 minutes and 30 minutes without reaching statistical significance. There were no serious adverse events during the 30 minute follow-up period. Conclusion: This study suggests that topical aqueous 2% lignocaine eardrops provide rapid relief for many young children presenting with ear pain attributed to AOM. The concurrent use of simple oral analgesia is a likely contributor to effective management of this painful childhood condition.

Parental disciplinary practices following acquired brain injury in children

Purpose: This study describes the disciplinary practices of parents following acquired brain injury (ABI) of their child and examines the relationship between disciplinary use, family-parental adversities and childrens behavioural sequelae. Method: Participants were 48 parent respondents of children between 3–12 years with mild, moderate and severe ABI. Parents provided demographic information and completed questionnaires investigating disciplinary strategy use, parental-family functioning and child behaviour. Results: Over-reactive and lax disciplinary strategies were endorsed most by parents. Dysfunctional levels of disciplinary use were associated with children who displayed more behaviour problems, parents with elevated distress and families experiencing more dysfunction and social adversity. Conclusion: Dysfunctional parenting practices, if not ameliorated, could exacerbate problematic child behaviour following ABI, as well as parent and family difficulties. Parental assessment may be useful as a method of screening for parental factors that put children at risk for ongoing behaviour problems and families for ongoing stress.