Peter C. Winwood

Development and validation of a scale to measure work-related fatigue and recovery : The Occupational Fatigue Exhaustion/Recovery scale (OFER)

Objective: Various empirical studies link persistent failure to recover from acute fatigue to the evolution of chronic fatigue. However, existing fatigue measurement scales do not tend to distinguish between acute and chronic fatigue elements well, and none include a measure of effective recovery from fatigue. Methods: The 15 item Occupational Fatigue Exhaustion Recovery (OFER) scale has been developed and validated in three study populations specifically to measure work-related fatigue. Results: The OFER scale possesses robust, gender-bias free psychometric characteristics. Its three subscales identify and distinguish between chronic work-related fatigue traits, acute end-of-shift states and effective fatigue recovery between shifts. Conclusion: These studies confirm the mediating role of intershift-shift recovery in the evolution of adaptive end-of-shift fatigue states to maladaptive persistent fatigue traits. The OFER scale is suggested as a potentially valuable new tool for use in work-related fatigue research.

An investigation of the role of non-work-time behavior in buffering the effects of work strain.

Objective: In this exploratory study, we investigated the extent to which common leisure time behaviors, which generate positive feelings of fulfillment and personal reward, are significant in alleviating work-induced stress between successive work periods. We tested the hypotheses that such activities increase recovery from stress directly, and also by improving sleep quality, thereby alleviating maladaptive outcomes from work strain. Method: An on-line survey study was completed by a heterogeneous sample of 314 workers in diverse occupations, in good health. Results: Non–work-time behaviors play a significant role in mediating maladaptive outcomes from work strain. Multivariate analysis of these relationships indicates both direct and indirect effects, the latter being associated with mediating sleep quality. Respondents reporting higher levels of active leisure activities, exercise, and creative (hobby) and social activity, reported significantly better sleep, recovery between work periods, and lower chronic maladaptive fatigue symptomology. Conclusion: Active and fulfilling non–work-time behaviors are more significant in maximizing recovery from work strain than is commonly recognized. This effect is arguably due to the downregulation of stress-induced brain arousal, and stimulation of the pleasure-reward brain neurophysiology. Consistent recovery from work strain between work periods may represent a crucial factor in avoiding work-related “loss spirals” leading to maladaptive health outcomes, which can be particularly relevant to workers in inherently stressful occupations.

Further Development and Validation of the Occupational Fatigue Exhaustion Recovery (OFER) Scale

Objective: Refinement of the Occupational Fatigue Exhaustion Recovery (OFER) scale. Method: The responses of 510 nurses to the OFER scale, two of whose scales contained additional items, were examined with CFA and regression analyses. Results: Analyses of the expanded pool of items identified three subscales of 5 items each for the renamed OFER15 scale. The subscales have high internal reliability (>.84), face, construct and discriminant validity. SEM analysis confirmed the role of recovery in mediating the relationship between acute and chronic fatigue measured with the OFER15 scale. Significance: The OFER15 measure is a parsimonious scale with robust psychometric properties whose subscales distinguish well between acute fatigue states and chronic fatigue traits. The intershift recovery subscale is unique among published fatigue scales. The OFER15 is suggested as a valuable new instrument for the researchers in the work-related fatigue area, and also as screening instrument in Primary Care.

A practical measure of workplace resilience: developing the resilience at work scale.

Objective: To develop an effective measure of resilience at work for use in individual work-related performance and emotional distress contexts. Methods: Two separate cross-sectional studies investigated: (1) exploratory factor analysis of 45 items putatively underpinning workplace resilience among 397 participants and (2) confirmatory factor analysis of resilience measure derived from Study 1 demonstrating a credible model of interaction, with performance outcome variables among 194 participants. Results: A 20-item scale explaining 67% of variance, measuring seven aspects of workplace resilience, which are teachable and capable of conscious development, was achieved. A credible model of relationships with work engagement, sleep, stress recovery, and physical health was demonstrated in the expected directions. Conclusion: The new scale shows considerable promise as a reliable instrument for use in the area of employee support and development.

Psychosocial culture and pathways to psychological injury within policing

This study explored the evolution of work‐related psychological injury in policing, focusing on the role of police psychosocial culture. In addition to primary interview data from 19 former officers, 4 focus groups and 17 spontaneous written submissions were sources of triangulation. Whether sustained as a result of traumatic stress experience or via the more common erosive stress pathway, the psychosocial context surrounding operational policing played a critical role in psychological injury development and progression. The mitigation of psychological injury within policing requires that meaningful efforts be directed at challenging the cultural imperative towards emotional control and improving organization‐wide psychosocial care.

Identification and Measurement of Work-Related Psychological Injury: Piloting the Psychological Injury Risk Indicator Among Frontline Police

Objective: To develop a self-report measure of work-related psychological injury, the Psychological Injury Risk Indicator (PIRI), with a comparable level of accuracy and reliability to individual clinical assessment by a skilled clinical psychologist. Method: Two pilot studies investigated the responses of a) 34 frontline police officers completing the PIRI measure who were also examined by a highly experienced clinical psychologist and b) 217 officers who completed the PIRI measure and also the General Health Questionnaire 12 measure. Results: The PIRI scale identified both the presence and the level of psychological injury in the clinical group with a remarkably high level of correspondence to concurrent clinical assessment (r = 0.80). Significance: The PIRI scale can be used both for the individual assessment of psychological injury and as a potential online screening tool. Its latter use is that it could enable the early identification of evolving psychological injury among workers, facilitating timely and career-preserving intervention.

Measuring Psychological Trauma in the Workplace: Psychometric Properties of the Italian Version of the Psychological Injury Risk Indicator—A Cross-Sectional Study

Background. The aim of this study was to cross-culturally adapt the Psychological Injury Risk Indicator (PIRI) and to validate its psychometric properties. Methods. Workers from 24 small companies were invited to self-complete the PIRI before undergoing their routine medical examination at the workplace. All participants (841 out of 845, 99.6%) were also asked to report occupational injuries and episodes of violence that had occurred at the workplace in the previous 12 months and were given the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) to complete. Results. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 4-factor structure, “sleep problems,” “recovery failure,” “posttraumatic stress symptoms,” and “chronic fatigue,” which were the same subscales observed in the original version. The internal consistency was excellent (alpha = 0.932). ROC curve analysis revealed that the PIRI was much more efficient than GHQ12 in diagnosing workers who had suffered trauma (workplace violence or injury) in the previous year, as it revealed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.679 (95% CI: 0.625–0.734) for the PIRI, while for the GHQ12 the AUC was 0.551 (not significant). Conclusions. This study, performed on a large population of workers, provides evidence of the validity of the Italian version of the PIRI.

Non-Work Time Activities Predicting Teachers' Work-Related Fatigue and Engagement: An Effort-Recovery Approach

Objective Drawing on the effort‐recovery model of work stress, this study examined the effects of school teachers’ sleep quality and time spent in various non‐work time activities on work‐related stress and motivational outcomes. We proposed that sleep quality and different types of non‐work time activities would have differential effects on levels of work‐related fatigue and engagement. Method Nine hundred and sixty Australian school teachers (mean age 46-years, 707 females, 237 males) completed a cross‐sectional online survey measuring sleep quality, time spent in non‐work time activities, and work‐related fatigue and engagement. Results Teachers spent relatively higher amounts of time on work‐related activities outside of formal work hours, and lower amounts of time on health‐promoting activities such as exercise. Multiple regression analyses indicated that sleep quality was related to reduced fatigue and increased engagement, while time spent socialising outside of work was related to reduced fatigue. Time spent on work‐related tasks outside of working hours was related to both increased fatigue and engagement. Other activities, including passive activity, exercise, and hobbies, were not significantly related to either outcome. Conclusions We discuss the implications of our findings in relation to theories and research in work stress, particularly in the context of where priorities should be placed for self‐care interventions to facilitate teachers’ day‐to‐day recovery from work demands.