Peter E. Mudrack

An investigation into the acceptability of workplace behaviors of a dubious ethical nature

Jones (1990) described ten workplace behaviors of a dubious ethical nature and determined that the hierarchical position adopted by respondents influenced the perceived acceptability of these behaviors. This measure seems promising, and therefore the purpose of this investigation is two-fold: (1) to explore further the psychometric properties of these ten items; and (2) to examine the role of individual difference variables as correlates of perceived acceptability. In two samples of working people, the Jones items were found to be internally consistent, not obviously subject to range restriction, modestly related to social desirability, largely orthogonal to age and managerial status, but clearly linked with Machiavellianism. The nature of the linkage between perceived acceptability and both sex and the Protestant work ethic differed across the two studies, which underscores the need for future research. Two additional variables worth investigating in such research may be locus of control and equity sensitivity.

Protestant work-ethic dimensions and work orientations

Abstract Recent evidence suggests that the Protestant work ethic (PWE) may be a multifaceted construct. This study explored the connections between four PWE components and three multidimensional work variables: time structure and purpose, work locus of control, and Type A behavior. A sample of 267 mostly employed American graduate students completed self-report surveys. Results suggested, in general, that only the PWE Hard Work facet correlated with structured and purposive time, and with internal work locus of control. Achievement oriented Type A behavior was associated with three PWE dimensions. The results of this investigation may provide renewed enthusiasm for the potential relevance of the PWE in studies of work attitudes, orientations, and behaviors by underscoring the importance of examining PWE components in these contexts. A somewhat altered portrait of work ethic believers also emerged here. Negative and disparaging views of others who may lack a strong work ethic may be as endemic to the PWE as are beliefs that hard work pays off. The results also have implications for the conceptualization and measurement of both time structure and purpose, and work locus of control.

Individual ethical beliefs and perceived organizational interests

Two contrasting types of individuals were each predicted to agree, for different reasons, that conventional ethical standards of society need not be upheld if organizational interests appear to demand otherwise. The hypotheses were investigated using questionnaire responses from two samples (employed and student, total N=308). Clear support was obtained for the prediction that individuals inclined toward self-interest and behavior counter to conventional standards would agree with the preceding position. Partial support was obtained for the hypothesis that individuals who simply feel obligated to support an employing organization would also agree. While the latters perspective may be somewhat narrow or perhaps even cynical, they do not seem to reflect the self-interest profile of the first group. This study also extends the groundbreaking work of Froelich and Kottke by exploring individual difference correlates of their promising ethics scale assessing the extent of agreement that organizational interests legitimately supersede more conventional ethical standards.

The Structure of Perceptions of Time.

Several promising survey instruments recently have emerged to assess time structuring and time management practices and behaviors. The present study evaluated the Time Structure Questionnaire (TSQ) of M. J. Bond and N. T. Feather and the Time Management Behavior Scale (TMBS) of T. H. Macan and colleagues by analyzing item content, subscale score reliabilities, and factor structures. A sample of 701 American working adults completed the 20-item TSQ (N= 453 for the 46-item TMBS). Results confirmed that four of five TSQ subscales should appear in their original formats and that truncated versions of the four TMBS subscales and of the remaining TSQ subscale should be adopted. The study affirmed the importance of examining TSQ and TMBS subscales rather than simply aggregate scores and of achieving uniformity in subscale composition in future research.

More on the Acceptability of Workplace Behaviors of a Dubious Ethical Nature

Research on business ethics is often characterized by a lack of continuity in the measures used in empirical studies. In other words, many investigators develop unique measures rather than use existing ones, a process which has produced a series of measures about which relatively little is known. This paper further explores an existing measure of ten survey items assessing the perceived acceptability of workplace behaviors of a dubious ethical nature. Self-report surveys were administered to two diverse samples of North American respondents (total N = 308). The acceptability scale continued to display adequate α reliability. Respondents who regarded the questionable activities described in the survey items as relatively acceptable tended also to score Machiavellian, to display an “entitled” pattern of equity sensitivity, and to report the existence of relatively little ethical conflict. The paper concluded by affirming the relevance and utility of both the acceptability measure and the ethical conflict scale. Researchers may wish to consider using existing scales when appropriate rather than creating their own measures.

Academic Involvement and the Nontraditional Student

This study expands upon previous research into academic involvement, which focused on youthful full-time university students, by surveying 213 adult part-time students. Two academic involvement measures were generally inversely related to absenteeism, although unrelated to final grade. However, those scoring high on these measures tend to be women and to have an internal locus of control, a need for achievement, and a strong Protestant work ethic. This research suggests that academic involvement is a valuable concept whose generalizability extends beyond the “college sophomore.”

Are the elderly really machiavellian? A reinterpretation of an unexpected finding

In an article published recently in theJournal of Business Ethics, Vitellet al. (1991) found that elderly respondents scored surprisingly high on a measure of Machiavellianism. This paper offers an alternative explanation for this unexpected result — it may be an artifact of the survey format employed — and recommends additional research to help clarify the issues raised by Vitell and his colleagues.

The Protestant work ethic and Type A behaviour: overlap or orthogonality?

Abstract This investigation explored the conceptual and empirical linkages between the Protestant work ethic (PWE) and the Type A behaviour pattern (TABP). Considering the apparent similarities between these work-related variables, surprisingly little is known about the relationship between them. In one sample ( N = 214), a global Type A measure correlated significantly but weakly with the PWE, while in another ( N = 136) the nature of the PWE-TABP relationship depended on the particular TABP subscale under consideration; i.e. near-zero for “impatience-irritability” but positive for “achievement strivngs”. These findings are consistent with the earlier work of Furnham ( Psychological Reports, 66 , 323–328, 1990). Additional analysis suggests, however, that the overlap between these variables is attributable to the influence of the need for achievement. When the effects of this third variable are held constant, the PWE is orthogonal to the TABP.

ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE ON AGE-RELATED DIFFERENCES IN MACHIAVELLIANISM IN AN ADULT SAMPLE '*'

In this investigation of 115 adults employed with the same organization, age again correlated inversely with scores on Machiavellianism, particularly the components of deceit and flattery.