Peter G. Forster

Culture, Nationalism, and the Invention of Tradition in Malawi

In May 1994 the Life President of Malawi, Dr H. Kamuzu Banda, the worlds oldest Head of State, was peacefully defeated in the countrys first multi-party elections after having been in power since February 1963. During that 31 year era his Malawi Congress Party (MCP) regime had been characterised by a remarkably high degree of legitimacy. It can of course be argued that this was simply based on political repression, which certainly existed, notably during periods of excessive sensitivity to various criticisms and actions that were interpreted as threats to the prevailing stability. This could be seen in the activities of Bandas strong-arm organisations (such as the Young Pioneers and the Youth League), and in the omnipresent secret police, who did their best to identify dissidents and rebels. Punishments included detention without trial, or much worse, and disloyalty was often vaguely and broadly defined.

The Peopling of Africa

The issue of how to define a human being assumes considerable moral, political and religious importance. There is a widespread belief throughout all cultures in the world that human life is to be valued, and that it is not to be ended deliberately. Christian belief involves statements as to the sanctity of human life, and some secular philosophies are described as ‘humanism’. Such beliefs generally do not go so far as to suggest that killing another human being is never justified. Exceptions are generally granted in the case of war, and also by way of revenge or punishment for certain offences, particularly homicide. Whether there should be any additional circumstances in which human life can legitimately be ended can often be a matter of heated debate, as in discussion about euthanasia. But certainly there is a sharp distinction drawn between human and animal life. In most societies in the world, animals are killed for food. Some also have totem animals which cannot be killed or eaten; and those who keep pets would feel revulsion about eating them, in the same way as they would about human beings (Levi-Strauss 1966: 204–8; Leach 1964; Leach 1970: 36–75). But even here life is not seen as sacred in the same way. Euthanasia, for instance, is generally seen as morally justified where severely injured pet animals are concerned.

Religion and the state in Tanzania and Malawi

Relations between religion and the state can be particularly problematic in Africa, and recent events in Tanzania and Malawi confirm this. The first post-independence governments of both countries expected religious values to support state ideology more or less uncritically, in return for religious freedom. More recent events in both countries have led to lessening of identity between state and religious values. Broader issues of rivalry of religion and state for ultimate support; the political dimension of moral concern; and the lack of identity between religious and political boundaries are all seen to be relevant.

Theories of Race and Ethnicity

The study of race inevitably tends to be a politically and emotionally charged issue. It is also one which brings to the fore the moral and political relevance of social science. Rex, for instance, has suggested that problems concerning race challenge the conscience of the sociologist just as the problem of nuclear weapons challenges the nuclear physicist. He notes that this is not the same thing as being in a position to dictate solutions; but rather that, in the case of the sociology of race relations, it should be possible to make clear the causes of the problem of the use of ‘race’ to discriminate against, exploit or even exterminate whole populations (Rex 1970: 1).

Ethnicity and Tourism

Tourism may be considered to be a variety of inter-ethnic relations because it brings into contact peoples who are not only strangers to one another, but may also be members of different cultures or sub-cultures (van den Berghe 1994: 8). Ethnicity permeates many aspects of tourism, not least because the tourism industry regards ethnicity as a resource. The marketing of ethnic tourism, according to Smith, involves the ‘quaint customs of indigenous and often exotic peoples’. The activities that attract tourists, he continues, include ‘visits to native homes and villages, observation of dances and ceremonies, shopping for primitive wares and curios’ (1989a: 4). Such observations were first published in 1977, and, though her categorization of tourists may seem dated in the 1990s, her general account of what attracts tourists remains relevant, and is broadly applicable to East Africa. What is significant about the region, however, is the attention focused on the conflicting demands of tourism development, environmental conservation, and the territorial rights of indigenous minorities. Although these issues are by no means unique to the region, they are of central rather than peripheral significance.

Asians in East Africa

The term ‘Asian’ is often used, especially since partition, to denote those whose ancestry is from the Indian sub-continent. ‘Arabs’ are seen as forming a separate category, and the term ‘Indian’ is reserved for visitors whose normal country of residence is India. However, the term ‘Indian’ will be adopted here to include all whose ancestry is from India, Pakistan or Bangla Desh. The term ‘Asian’ will be used here to include both Indians and Arabs, and historical links with South-east Asia will also be shown to be relevant.

Postscript: Developments in Rwanda and Burundi in the 1990s

Rwanda and Burundi have in the 1990s received extensive media publicity as a consequence of widespread carnage and genocidal attacks. There has also been major displacement of population, involving a mass exodus of refugees into neighbouring countries, particularly Zaire (Congo Democratic Republic), Uganda, and Tanzania. Such developments have attracted the attention of the international community at various levels. Neighbouring countries have been concerned about regional stability, the salience of ethnic issues, and problems arising from acceptance of large numbers of refugees. The Organization of African Unity has shown concern to the point where it has threatened to intervene and the United Nations has been involved to the extent of actually sending peace-keeping forces. The devastation caused by the conflict has also led to involvement of medical and food aid agencies, and the human rights issues have been the subject of concern by Amnesty International. The ethnic issue has remained the key factor in politics. Events since 1994, in the aftermath of the death of the presidents of both countries, are of particular significance.

Ethnic Factors in National Integration

It is commonly recognized throughout Africa that problems arise from the colonial legacy in respect of national boundaries. These did not always ignore ethnic factors, but some of them were straight lines. A map of Africa shows this to be particularly the case in the west, but the boundary between Tanzania and Kenya is also straight for most of the way, and cuts right across the traditional homeland of the Maasai. Yet only rarely has the attempt been made after independence to go back to the previous boundaries, since the difficulties involved in such an exercise would be insurmountable. A large number of small states would thereby have been created (over 100 in Tanzania alone). Even attempts to rectify the division of ethnic units by a colonial boundary could have presented severe problems, and might even have led to warfare. Furthermore, at least some degree of national consciousness had been developed before independence. Those within a given colonial boundary were united by opposition to a common enemy, and in such circumstances nationalism made perfect sense (Worsley 1964: 65–7). There was also a measure of mobility beyond tribal boundaries before independence, especially in search of work. There were, none the less, some changes in boundaries after independence in East Africa. Rwanda and Burundi had been administered together within a single national boundary during the Belgian colonial period (and under German rule had been incorporated, with Tanganyika, into German East Africa), but as independent states they became two separate kingdoms again.

Europeans in East Africa

European political control of Africa was of very brief duration in terms of the entire history of the continent, though it could easily span a person’s whole lifetime: and its impact was in any case very considerable. In 1880 about ninety per cent of African territory was under indigenous government; by 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia had not been colonised by European powers. But in 1957 the Gold Coast became independent as Ghana; Tanganyika became independent in 1961; and in 1994 the end of apartheid in South Africa brought to a close all White minority rule throughout the whole continent. Table 4.1 shows the date of formal annexation, and the date of lawful independence, for all the East African territories.

Racism, Racialism and Segregation in the African Context

Before examining the situation in East Africa in detail, it is appropriate to look at issues of race in the broader African context. Certain historical developments, some very recent and many more within living memory, have continued to affect modern political consciousness. In this chapter the first phenomenon considered, that of the slave trade, belongs to an earlier historical epoch. But it will be examined in some detail, because no other institution depended quite so much upon a racist outlook — though as has already been noted, ideologies which tried to justify slavery appeared only after it had begun. Secondly the European response to slavery in the form of missionary activity and subsequent colonialism will be considered with particular reference to the implications for race and racism. Thirdly, the situation in South Africa will be examined, as a phenomenon in itself and in terms of how the persistence of apartheid had its impact upon international relations in the African context. Fourthly, the issue of first the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and subsequently illegal declaration of independence in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), and its impact upon international politics, will be considered. Finally, an analysis of African societies (South Africa and Rhodesia/ Zimbabwe) in which racial segregation was one of the key characteristics will be made from the viewpoint of sociology and anthropology.