Peter Hancock

Violence, Women, Work and Empowerment Narratives from Factory Women in Sri Lanka's Export Processing Zones

Abstract Qualitative research was conducted among young Sri Lankan women who work in the nation’s Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in 2004-2005. The research was designed to provide new understandings of the ways in which women’s empowerment is conceptualized. More specifically, the research looked for alternative ways to measure gender empowerment as opposed to existing global measures, such as the UNDP’s Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) which dominate discourse vis-à-vis women’s empowerment in developing nations. In the course of the research, women were asked to discuss new ways in which to conceptualize and in turn measure women’s empowerment, based upon their lived experiences as factory workers. The issue of violence against women emerged as a dominant theme in their narratives. This was surprising because the issue of gender-based violence was never introduced to any of the participants in focus groups or interviews. However, as a related theme it was explored further; and violence against women in Sri Lankan society does indeed appear to be a major problem. The fact that a majority of the factory women who participated in this research rated violence against women (or lack of it) as a major way in which to measure women’s empowerment (over time) is a reflection of the problem itself (at the societal level) and provides new and constructive ways in which to conceptualize and measure women’s empowerment.

Women, work and empowerment: A portrait of women workers in two of Sri Lanka's Export Processing Zones

In the last three decades young, predominantly unmarried, Sri Lankan women have formed the backbone of an enormous economic shift toward export-oriented industrialization. As a result, much attention has focused upon the impacts and outcomes of this shift upon Sri Lankan women, particularly those employed in the nations numerous Export Processing Zones (EPZs). The rapid absorption of young women into formal employment in EPZs has caused hardships for women in the workplace, at societal level and in terms of related gender subordination. However, employment has also brought about benefits, particularly to families and households where stable incomes are usually non-existent. Both hardships and benefits are reported in the article. However, while acknowledging that factory women in Sri Lankas EPZs face serious hardships and new forms of gender inequality and discrimination, the research also discovered evidence of some of the benefits which new and stable employment provides. While most research has tended to focus on only the negative impacts industrialization brings upon women as labour in developing nations, the article presents data on and perceptions of two groups of factory women which indicate both positive and negative outcomes of their employment.

Gender, Status and Empowerment

This article is based on an AusAID-funded study which sampled 521 young factory women working in Sri Lanka’s largest Export Processing Zone (EPZ) – Katuanayake. The analysis of qualitative data provides insights into the lived experiences of factory women and was designed to provide a more complex understanding of the ways in which women may be empowered or indeed dis-empowered as a result of formal factory employment. The research was funded by AusAID specifically in the interest to offset the macro and often crude ways were adopted in which gender empowerment is measured through the UNDPs Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI). In essence the qualitative research presented in this article shows clearly the shortcomings of the GEM and GGGI and provides new insights into the ways in which women in Sri Lanka’s EPZs experience and understand empowerment. The rationale being that the sample group are at the ‘cutting edge’ of economic development and should be, according to the GEM and GGGI, ‘empowered’ simply because they have full time and relatively well paid employment. Indeed the conclusions in this article present a contrary argument and in the process new ways to conceptualize empowerment of women in developing nations.

Older carers in ageing societies:an evaluation of a respite care program for older carers in Western Australia.

ABSTRACT The Australian Red Cross Older Carers Program was developed in 2003 to support the unique needs of “older carers” aged 65 and older (50 if Indigenous) who care for a person (a care recipient, usually a family member) aged 18 or older who have a permanent disability. The aim of the program was to provide intensive case planning, management, and volunteer support that would assist older carers to more readily access respite and continue their caring role in the home. To help achieve this end, ongoing individualised and holistic assistance involving older carers in decision making was an integral component of the Older Carers Program, as was the use of regular home visits by program staff. The Older Carers Program evaluation was both a process and outcome evaluation. Much of the evaluation research focused on the extent to which it had met its stated aims and objectives. However, because the program was quite new and innovative there was a significant further focus upon the processes and activities within the program. At the time the evaluation research was conducted (May 2005), the program had been in operation for 22 months. The population group was identified as those persons (older carers) who had been part of the program between July 2003 and March 2005. Of the 96 older carers who had accessed the program in the specified period, 62 agreed to participate in our research. The methodology consisted of an audit or the program database, in-depth interviews with older carers, and contextual data collection involving program staff and other stakeholders.

Breaking the Isolation Cycle: The Experience of Muslim Refugee Women in Australia

Based on the findings of focus groups and key informant interviews, an ‘isolation cycle’ is proposed to conceptualize the interrelated processes that marginalize first generation migrant Muslim refugee women from meaningful participation in Australian society. We hold that both internal ‘ethnic’ factors and external societal factors are jointly involved in perpetuating a cycle of isolation for Muslim refugee women. Hence, we propose that the tendency of social analysts, politicians and media commentators alike to focus on one group over the other as a means of casting ‘blame’ on difficulties surrounding integration is misguided. We conclude that more attention is required by Australian services and government agencies in breaking the isolation cycle through a more sustained, pro-active strategy directed not only at refugee settlers, but Australian society in general.

Sources, incidence and effects of non-physical workplace violence against nurses in Ghana

To document the incidence, sources and effects of workplace verbal abuse and sexual harassment against Ghanaian nurses.

Perceptions of pregnancy experiences when using a community-based antenatal service: A qualitative study of refugee and migrant women in Perth, Western Australia

BACKGROUND Equality of care in pregnancy is important for all women, however can be difficult for healthcare providers to achieve. It has been found that culturally and linguistically diverse women born overseas generally have lower satisfaction with pregnancy care than women born in the host country. AIM Using a phenomenological framework, and models of care as a conceptual framework, this study explored the perceptions of care experienced by refugees and migrant women of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds who had participated in a community-based antenatal programme specialising in maternity care of multicultural women. METHOD Informants were twelve women aged between 23 and 44 years of age; one woman was 33 weeks pregnant, other women had given birth in the six months prior to data collection. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, using interpreters for women who spoke little or no English. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. FINDINGS Four main themes were identified; Social Support, Gaining of Knowledge, A Holistic Service, and New Opportunities. CONCLUSION Using a community-based antenatal service specialising in maternity care of women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds enabled the needs of refugee and migrant women to be recognised and met, and therefore enhanced their perception of the pregnancy experience.

Women's economic empowerment and formal income: Sri Lankan Export Processing Zones (EPZs) and their impact on gender perceptions of empowerment

Women workers in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in Sri Lanka are often exposed to harsh working conditions and a range of negative social experiences due to their perceived low social status. Research has demonstrated that they experience both empowerment and disempowerment as a result of formal employment. The authors explore the differences between female Sri Lankan EPZ workers who felt empowered (n = 2196) and those who did not (n = 107), and investigate factors that contribute to empowerment. The analysis reveals a significant difference between the two groups of workers: empowered women had a longer history of employment service, saved significantly more money, and contributed much less to their family than non-empowered women. There were no significant differences in social experiences between the groups. However, the work-related variables used to investigate reported influential factors in empowerment demonstrated that as savings increased so too did the likelihood of empowerment. Conversely, as the proportion of the contribution to the family income increased, the odds of reporting empowerment decreased. The findings suggest that work factors may not be the most important in the establishment of and/or reporting empowerment but rather earnings management and contribution to household appear to be a more significant determining factor.

Co-Location of Services for Refugees: An Evaluation of a Pilot Program in Western Australia

In recent years newly arrived refugees from Africa, Burma and Middle Eastern nations have dominated the refugee intake to Australia. Coming from war torn nations, extremely poor economies and rural areas, their transition into Australia has not been easy. This paper is based on the evaluation of the Integrated Services Centre Pilot Project (ISC) which assessed co-location as an alternative service delivery model. The evaluation focused on project staff, service providers and a small sample of the refugees themselves. The objectives of the research did not warrant a greater focus on the clients as the evaluation centered on co-location as an alternate service delivery model. Data gathered from the evaluation indicated that the basic support needs of African refugees were not being met by traditional refugee services, but that the ISC Project was meeting these needs. Data also showed that African refugees had a higher level of need than other refugee groups. The article concludes with some recommendations on how current service provision can be more responsive to the needs of African refugees.

Workplace violence against nurses: A cross-sectional descriptive study of Ghanaian nurses.

The aim of this study was to document the incidence, sources, and effects of workplace physical violence against Ghanaian nurses. Self-report questionnaires were completed by 592 nurses employed in public general hospitals in Ghana. Participants were selected using a combination of purposive and random sampling techniques. Nine percent of the participants experienced physical violence in the 12 months preceding the study. The majority of perpetrators were relatives of patients. Chi-square tests suggested significant relationships between type of hospital and workplace physical violence, and between intention to quit the nursing profession and workplace physical violence. Workplace violence had several negative effects on nurses including having disturbing memories about the incident and being “super alert” and vigilant. Strategies to curb workplace violence could include awareness creation among health care workers and the general public. Policies and legislations must also be put in place to address this social problem.