Peter Hassmén

Perceived exertion related to heart rate and blood lactate during arm and leg exercise

SummaryTo compare some psychophysiological responses to arm exercise with those to leg exercise, an experiment was carried out on electronically braked bicycle ergometers, one being adapted for arm exercise. Eight healthy males took part in the experiment with stepwise increases in exercise intensity every 4 min: 40—70—100—150—200 W in cycling and 20—35—50—70—100 W in arm cranking. Towards the end of each 4 min period, ratings of perceived exertion were obtained on the RPE scale and on a new category ratio (CR) scale: heart rate (HR) and blood lactate accumulation (BL) were also measured.The responses obtained were about twice as high or more for arm cranking than for cycling. The biggest difference was found for BL and the smallest for HR and RPE. The incremental functions were similar in both activities, with approximately linear increases in HR and RPE and positively accelerating functions for CR (exponents about 1.9) and BL (exponents 2.5 and 3.3 respectively). When perceived exertion (according to the CR scale) was set as the dependent variable and a simple combination of HR and BL was used as the independent variable, a linear relationship was obtained for both kinds of exercise, as has previously been found in cycling, running, and walking. The results thus give support for the following generalization: For exercise of a steady state type with increasing loads the incremental curve for perceived exertion can be predicted from a simple combination of HR and BL.

Overtraining and recovery. A conceptual model.

Fiercer competition between athletes and a wider knowledge of optimal training regimens dramatically influence current training methods. A single training bout per day was previously considered sufficient, whereas today athletes regularly train twice a day or more. Consequently, the number of athletes who are overtraining and have insufficient rest is increasing.Positive overtraining can be regarded as a natural process when the end result is adaptation and improved performance; the supercompensation principle — which includes the breakdown process (training) followed by the recovery process (rest) — is well known in sports. However, negative overtraining, causing maladaptation and other negative consequences such as staleness, can occur.Physiological, psychological, biochemical and immunological symptoms must be considered, both independently and together, to fully understand the ’staleness’ syndrome. However, psychological testing may reveal early-warning signs more readily than the various physiological or immunological markers.The time frame of training and recovery is also important since the consequences of negative overtraining comprise an overtraining-response continuum from short to long term effects. An athlete failing to recover within 72 hours has presumably negatively overtrained and is in an overreached state. For an elite athlete to refrain from training for >72 hours is extremely undesirable, highlighting the importance of a carefully monitored recovery process.There are many methods used to measure the training process but few with which to match the recovery process against it. One such framework for this is referred to as the total quality recovery (TQR) process. By using a TQR scale, structured around the scale developed for ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), the recovery process can be monitored and matched against the breakdown (training) process (TQR versus RPE). The TQR scale emphasises both the athlete’s perception of recovery and the importance of active measures to improve the recovery process. Furthermore, directing attention to psychophysiological cues serves the same purpose as in RPE, i.e. increasing self-awareness.This article reviews and conceptualises the whole overtraining process. In doing so, it (i) aims to differentiate between the types of stress affecting an athlete’s performance; (ii) identifies factors influencing an athlete’s ability to adapt to physical training; (iii) structures the recovery process. The TQR method to facilitate monitoring of the recovery process is then suggested and a conceptual model that incorporates all of the important parameters for performance gain (adaptation) and loss (maladaptation).

Sources and effects of low‐frequency noise

The sources of human exposure to low-frequency noise and its effects are reviewed. Low-frequency noise is common as background noise in urban environments, and as an emission from many artificial sources: road vehicles, aircraft, industrial machinery, artillery and mining explosions, and air movement machinery including wind turbines, compressors, and ventilation or air-conditioning units. The effects of low-frequency noise are of particular concern because of its pervasiveness due to numerous sources, efficient propagation, and reduced efficacy of many structures (dwellings, walls, and hearing protection) in attenuating low-frequency noise compared with other noise. Intense low-frequency noise appears to produce clear symptoms including respiratory impairment and aural pain. Although the effects of lower intensities of low-frequency noise are difficult to establish for methodological reasons, evidence suggests that a number of adverse effects of noise in general arise from exposure to low-frequency noise: Loudness judgments and annoyance reactions are sometimes reported to be greater for low-frequency noise than other noises for equal sound-pressure level; annoyance is exacerbated by rattle or vibration induced by low-frequency noise; speech intelligibility may be reduced more by low-frequency noise than other noises except those in the frequency range of speech itself, because of the upward spread of masking. On the other hand, it is also possible that low-frequency noise provides some protection against the effects of simultaneous higher frequency noise on hearing. Research needs and policy decisions, based on what is currently known, are considered.

Administration of branched-chain amino acids during sustained exercise — effects on performance and on plasma concentration of some amino acids

SummaryPrevious studies have shown that sustained exercise in human subjects causes an increase in the plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan: other large neutral amino acids [including the branched-chain amino acids (BCAA)]. This should favour the transport of tryptophan into the brain and also the synthesis of 5-hydroxytryptamine, which is thought to contribute to fatigue during prolonged exercise. A mixture of the three BCAA was given to subjects during a 30-km cross-country race or a marathon (42.2 km) and the effects on mental and physical performances were measured. The mental performance, measured as the performance in the Stroop Colour and Word Test (CWT), was improved after, as compared to before the 30-km cross-country race when a BCAA supplement was given during the race, whereas the CWT scores were similar before and after in the placebo group. The running performance in the marathon was improved for the “slower” runners (3.05 h–3.30 h) when BCAA was taken during the race; however, there was no significant effect on the performance in the “faster” runners (<3.05 h). The results showed that both mental and physical performance was improved by an intake of BCAA during exercise. In addition, the effects of exercise on the plasma concentration of the aromatic amino acids were altered when a BCAA supplement was given during the marathon.

Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence

The setting of high standards is an integral part of elite sports, and often beneficial for the athletes performance. However, individuals who are characterized by frequent cognitions about the attainment of ideal, perfectionistic standards, have been shown to be likely to experience heightened levels of anxiety, due to discrepancies between ideal and current self/situation. This could of course be detrimental to their sport performance. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between different patterns of perfectionistic dimensions and sport-related competitive anxiety and self-confidence, for elite athletes with different self-esteem strategies. The results revealed that the relation between self-esteem and perfectionism differs depending on which dimensions of self-esteem and perfectionism that are being considered. Athletes with a high self-esteem based on a respect and love for themselves had more positive patterns of perfectionism, whereas athletes who have a self-esteem that is dependent on competence aspects showed a more negative perfectionism. Further, negative patterns of perfectionism were in the present study related to higher levels of cognitive anxiety and lower levels of self-confidence. Hence, it seems that sport related anxiety is positively associated to certain patterns of perfectionism, patterns that are more common in individuals with specific self-esteem strategies.

Self-monitored exercise at three different RPE intensities in treadmill vs field running

The aims of the present study were a) to compare the outcome of running exercise performed on a treadmill (laboratory) and an outdoor track (field) using an RPE production protocol and b) to study this kind of protocol used over time (3-5 wk). A group of 11 healthy male subjects participated, with ages varying from 33 to 65 yr (mean = 42.9 +/- 11.0 yr). Two test sessions consisting of both treadmill and track exercise were performed in a rotated order to control for sequential effects. All subjects exercised according to an identical protocol: two successive trials (3 min each) at RPE 11 (light exertion), followed by a RPE 13 (somewhat hard) trial (11 min) and, finally, a RPE 15 (hard) trial (5 min). Results show significantly different levels of heart rate (HR), blood lactate, and velocity at the three RPE levels. Large differences were also observed in all measured variables between field and laboratory. These differences were consistent over time. A high internal consistency, measured by test-retest reliability (alpha greater than 0.9), was obtained for both velocity and HR between the first two trials at RPE 11. In conclusion, the RPE method functioned well as a means of monitoring and regulating exercise intensity.

Prevalence of Burnout in Competitive Adolescent Athletes

This study examined the factorial validity of the Eades Burnout Inventory (EABI) and the prevalence of burnout in adolescent elite athletes and whether burnout is more common in individual sports t ...

Athlete burnout: an integrated model and future research directions

Athlete burnout is a multifaceted phenomenon. As a consequence, several attempts have been made to describe it from both a process and a state perspective. A number of theories and models exist that deal with the process of burning out and/or its antecedents. When viewed separately, the presented findings may be perceived as contradicting each other, or at best as confusing. To advance the field, we offer a comprehensive review of what is presently known within the area of athlete burnout and what new knowledge is needed. Furthermore, we suggest an integrated model of athlete burnout. This model includes major antecedents, early signs, consequences, and factors related to personality, coping and the environment. Our purpose is not to present the definitive model but to create a conceptual understanding of the field as it is seen today, and thereby stimulate empirical research to further advance the knowledge base.

The role of exercise and gender for physical self-perceptions and importance ratings in Swedish university students

The purpose of this study was to investigate how scores on the Physical Self‐Perception Profile (PSPP), including scores on the Perceived Importance Profile (PIP), were related to self‐reported exercise frequency, duration, and gender in sample of Swedish university students. A total of 164 participants completed the PSPP, PIP, and a questionnaire focusing on frequency and duration of exercise. Exercise frequency, duration, and gender predicted best the PSPP sub‐domains of Sport Competence and Physical Conditioning. Exercising more frequently, and for a longer time on each occasion was associated with higher PSPP and PIP scores. Women generally displayed lower PSPP scores than men. These results suggest that exercise professionals need to master a range of appropriate exercise strategies, since doubts concerning self‐presentation may work against establishing a regular exercise routine.

Exercise for older women : a training method and its influences on physical and cognitive performance

SummaryThe decline in physical and mental ability often associated with increasing age in adults has both social and economic implications that affect most nations. Hence, the maintenance of functional capacity and independence of the older person are beneficial both for the individual and society alike. One way to enhance functioning in old age is physical exercise. However, few methods exist that enable older people to monitor and regulate exercise intensity without using expensive apparatus. Utilizing the individuals subjective feeling of perceived exertion through the use of a simple rating scale is an approach that differs markedly from those previously employed. The present study used the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale to induce different exercise intensities in groups of older women. Walking was chosen as the type of exercise since most older women are unfamiliar with, or affraid to engage in, other types of physical exercise such as bicycling or running. Results indicated that physical exercise capacity increased after 3 months of regular low-intensity walking in the exercise groups but not in nonexercising controls. Furthermore, these changes were accompanied by improved digit span performance. In conclusion, this study has shown that the RPE scale may be used for exercise regulation and that older women would seem to be able to use the scale to monitor and regulate their exercise intensity in an outdoor environment in much the same way as younger individuals.