Peter J. Urwin

Generational Differences in Work Values: A Review of Theory and Evidence

This paper presents a critical review of the theoretical basis and empirical evidence for the popular practitioner idea that there are generational differences in work values. The concept of generations has a strong basis in sociological theory, but the academic empirical evidence for generational differences in work values is, at best, mixed. Many studies are unable to find the predicted differences in work values, and those that do often fail to distinguish between ‘generation’ and ‘age’ as possible drivers of such observed differences. In addition, the empirical literature is fraught with methodological limitations through the use of cross-sectional research designs in most studies, confusion about the definition of a generation as opposed to a cohort, and a lack of consideration for differences in national context, gender and ethnicity. Given the multitude of problems inherent in the evidence on generational differences in work values, it is not clear what value the notion of generations has for practitioners, and this may suggest that the concept be ignored. Ultimately, it may not matter to practitioners whether differences in the values of different birth cohorts reflect true generational effects, provided one can reliably demonstrate that these differences do exist. However, at present this is not the case, and therefore significant research is required first to disentangle cohort and generational effects from those caused by age or period. The suggestion that different groups of employees have different values and preferences, based on both age and other factors such as gender, remains a useful idea for managers; but a convincing case for consideration of generation as an additional distinguishing factor has yet to be made.

Education and skills mismatch in the Italian graduate labour market

This paper focuses on education and skills mismatch among Italian graduates. Indicators for over- and under-utilization of education and under-utilization of skills are included as explanatory factors in a wage equation, testing theories that could explain the effect of over-schooling on wages. We find little evidence to support assignment theory and also identify a relatively weak wage effect arising from educational mismatch associated with employers’, as opposed to employees’, perceptions of the job requirements. Our interpretation is that some employers have re-categorized jobs as requiring a degree, when they were previously filled by non-graduates, and many have not altered pay scales accordingly.

Intergenerational mobility and occupational status in Italy

This study examines the intergenerational transmission of socio-economic status, using data from the 2000 wave of the Bank of Italys Survey on Household Income and Wealth: specifically, analysing the relationship between the occupational status of parents and their children. Reducing the extent to which an individuals economic or social success is shaped by the economic or social position of their parents has been on the agenda of the Italian government for a long time and is at the root of the Italian centralized and egalitarian system of education. However, our empirical results suggest that the achievements of children continue to be highly dependent on the social status of their parents, especially their fathers. Whilst Italys egalitarian education system may have removed some of the inequities in human capital accumulation arising from capital market imperfections, it would seem that additional measures are required to further facilitate intergenerational social mobility.

Search methods and transitions into employment and inactivity

This paper sets out to evaluate the effect of search method employed (broadly defined here as formal or informal) on the probability that an individual will move out of unemployment into either employment or inactivity. We take advantage of the longitudinal element contained within the Labour Force Survey and link 794 individual records through five quarters. The sample contains all those who are unemployed in Spring 1996 and records their labour market status for the four quarters ending in Spring 1997. Given that this element of the LFS is only just beginning to be used, we attempt to evaluate its usefulness for the estimation of a discrete time‐competing risks model. We do find an effect of search method employed in the final specification and the sign on the coefficient rejects our belief that those using informal search methods may do so in order to signal their higher levels of productivity. Instead we are led to conclude that those using informal search methods may do so because of a lack of skills needed to use more formal channels.

The Impact of Generational Diversity on People Management

The issue of generational diversity has received growing attention in recent years, as management and business consultants, together with the popular media, make increasing reference to the different generations in the population (Parry and Urwin 2009). Within the area of management practice much attention has been paid to generational differences in workplace attitudes and behaviours (Filipczak 1994; Kupperschmidt 2000). In this chapter we draw on this growing practitioner literature and consider how this relates to the academic underpinnings of the study of generations. The aim is to draw together an understanding of how generational diversity may affect the workplace, the relationship that this concept has to ‘age’ and ultimately the implications for practitioners.

What Difference Does it Make? Facilitative Judicial Mediation of Discrimination Cases in Employment Tribunals

Mediation is promoted by government to reduce the volume, cost and formality of dispute resolution, but evidence of these benefits is inconclusive. A number of reports have analysed mediation of contract and similar cases in the County Courts but there has been little empirical work in the employment field. This article considers the findings of an evaluation of (facilitative) judicial mediation, piloted by the Employment Tribunal Service, for discrimination cases starting between June 2006 and March 2007. A matched analysis of the outcomes from one hundred and sixteen mediated cases, relative to an unmediated control group, found no significant impact of early resolution attributable to judicial mediation. This article digs deeper into the additional qualitative and quantitative evidence generated by the study to shed light on the process and outcomes. Detailed mediation reports completed by the judicial mediators and „in-depth‟ interviews are reviewed to describe the outcomes of mediation employment cases against the outcomes offered in law, the views and levels of satisfaction of claimants, respondents and representative are considered. Suggestions are made for either adjusting the facilitative mediation model or seeking an alternative that complements existing dispute resolution services, particularly those provided by ACAS.

Age, Generations, and the Labour Market

Most economies, at a stage in their post-industrial development, experience an increase in the proportion of older individuals within the population, as birth rates fall and longevity improves. Across 27 members of the European Union (the ‘EU-27’), there will be a substantial decline in the proportion of individuals aged between 15 and 64, from 67 per cent in 2010 to 56 per cent in 2060. The population ageing that drives much of this change will be particularly acute up to 2030, with the proportion of individuals aged 65 and over rising from 17 per cent in 2010 to 26 per cent in 2030, but then only increasing to 29.5 per cent up to 2060 (European Commission 2014). In the USA, between 2012 and 2050, the population aged 65 and over is projected to almost double, from 43 million to 84 million (Ortman et al. 2014).

Representation in UK Employment Tribunals: Analysis of the 2003 and 2008 Survey of Employment Tribunal Applications (SETA)

The perception is that formal representation is increasingly common in UK Employment Tribunals (ETs), as case volumes and complexity increase. We investigate the nature of representation in UK ETs using the 2003 and 2008 Survey of Employment Tribunal Applications (SETA). The results suggest that between 2003 and 2008, the extent of formal claimant representation declined. The majority of employers and claimants are either heavily represented or have little/no representation, and there is little evidence that claimant representation is a response to employer representation at least at the level of individual claims. Overall, however, it would seem that some of the ‘accessible, informal and inexpensive’ characteristics envisaged by Donovan continue to apply only to cases within certain jurisdictions.

Quantitative evidence in the evaluation of ADR: the case of judicial mediation in UK Employment Tribunals

Existing evidence on the effectiveness of mediation and other forms of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) suggests high settlement rates and enhanced levels of satisfaction. Faced with pressures on the UK Employment Tribunal (ET) system from increased case volumes and complexity, policymakers have turned to ADR as a policy tool that can potentially ease the strain. However, studies that provide robust evidence of a statistically significant effect or ‘value added’ from ADR are scarce. In this paper, we consider evidence from a quantitative evaluation of judicial mediation in the UK ET system, piloted for discrimination cases. The findings suggest that judicial mediation is particularly favoured by employers, and controlling for a range of factors, including jurisdiction, we find that women are significantly more likely to take up the offer of mediation; as are employers who do not have representation in the early stages of the process. However, the main finding from the evaluation using propensity score matching is that no statistically significant effect can be identified when comparing the outcomes from matched mediated and unmediated case samples. The focus of discussion is on why this result occurs and the implications for the wider debates on ADR; specifically we consider the need for variety in the types of ADR used, in situations where the primary aim is to cope with increased case volumes and complexity.

A Comparison of Business Graduates' Labour Force Destinations Following Post-Secondary Vocational Education and Training in Three Indian States.

The Higher Secondary Vocational Education programme in India was introduced in 1976–77, to boost the supply of manpower trained to an intermediate skill level. This paper uses data collected during a study of the impact of vocational business courses in the three states of Kerala, Goa and Haryana. The study collected information on a range of indicators of student background, their views on the vocational education programmes, their employment status following completion, as well as some idea of their reasons for enrolling. The study considers the findings from the three states and places this in context by drawing on the extensive literature in this area. As with many studies of this nature, there are limitations placed on our interpretation of the data. However, the main findings do support the view that a destination of continued education and training may act as a form of hidden unemployment for the most disadvantaged who graduate from vocational education and training programmes; reflecting a wider need for policies that ensure buoyant local labour markets, with sufficient and appropriate demand for labour, alongside vocational education and training programmes.