Peter M. Day

Chemical and Mineralogical Alteration of Ceramics from A Late Bronze Age Kiln At Kommos, Crete: the Effect On the Formation of A Reference Group

The formation of reference groups comprises an important procedure in chemical provenance studies of archaeological pottery. Material from ancient kilns is thought to be especially suitable for reference groups, as it comprises a definite unit of past production. Pottery from the Late Minoan IA kiln excavated at Kommos, Crete was analysed in order to produce a reference group in this important area of Minoan ceramic production. The samples were characterized by a combination of techniques providing information on the chemistry, mineralogy and microstructure of the ceramic body. Initially, the study was unable to establish, in a straightforward manner, a chemical reference group. Different ceramic pastes and a range of selective alterations and contaminations, affected by variable firing temperatures and burial environment, were shown to be responsible for the compositional variability. Procedures are described to compensate for such alterations and the perturbations in the data that they produce.

Natural insecticides and insect repellents in antiquity: A review of the evidence

Archaeoentomological and palaeobotanical research at the Late Bronze Age site of Akrotiri on the Greek island of Santorini has suggested that natural insecticides and insect repellents were used in the storerooms of the site. A wide range of methods such as airtight storage, use of plant and animal substances, oils, minerals and ash were employed to control insect pests and reduce storage losses. Archaeological evidence from other sites as well as relevant information given by the documentary sources and the ethnographic record is reviewed.

ROMAN GLASS-MAKING AT COPPERGATE, YORK? ANALYTICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE NATURE OF PRODUCTION*

Ceramic vessels and associated vitreous debris, excavated at Coppergate, York, UK, have been interpreted as the remains of Roman glass-making from the raw materials. This paper reports the results of analysis of this assemblage by XRF, ICPS, XRD, SEM–EDAX and thin-section petrography. These findings suggest that some ceramic vessels, used as crucibles, have been subjected to temperatures up to 1200°C, well above the firing temperatures of the local domestic assemblage from which they were selected. Analysis of quartz-rich debris, intimately mixed with glass in some samples and in others interleaved with glassy phases, indicates partially reacted glass-making raw materials, with α-quartz, tridymite and cristoballite phases represented. This could represent evidence either of a failed attempt to frit the raw materials, or a batch that had not fully fused. Variability in the composition of glass at the site is viewed in the light of glass-making technology, and possible interpretations concerning this episode are discussed in the light of the archaeological evidence.

Production and exchange of the earliest ceramic vessels in the Aegean: a view from Early Neolithic Knossos, Crete

Around 6500 BC the first ceramic vessels appeared in the Aegean (Anatolian coast, mainland Greece, Crete). On Crete, the rich stratigraphical sequence of the Neolithic tell-mound at Knossos attests to the introduction of pottery after a long aceramic phase (c. 500 years). In common with most assemblages of this period, pottery production has been understood to be almost entirely local to its findspot, leading to a minimalist view of ceramic exchange (cf. Vitelli 1993). In the case of Knossos this ceramic isolation is compounded by the fact that an Early Neolithic (EN) date has been claimed for only six other sites, most of which are caves (see MAP). Consequently the EN Cretan landscape is considered to be empty of settlements, dominated by an isolated Knossos (e.g. Manning 1999: 470). These hypotheses have been re-examined in doctoral research by Tomkins into the production, circulation and consumption of EN pottery from Knossos. This project has integrated macroscopic study of pottery form, fabric and frequency with a combination of thin-section petrography and scanning electron microscopy. This has provided new data on ceramic technology and provenance, which challenges current assumptions about the role of early ceramics, EN settlement and the archaeological visibility of early sites. The project has identified a range of fabrics that occur in widely differing numbers. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the greatest proportion is tempered with varieties of crushed limestone at least compatible with a local provenance (FIGURE 1). Other major fabric groups suggest a provenance elsewhere in north-central Crete or perhaps further afield, being tempered with altered volcanic rock (FIGURE 2) or phyllite (FIGURE 3 ) . Most fabrics, however, occur relatively infrequently (15%); in most cases their provenance remains open, although a few appear to originate off-island (FIGURE 4). The origin of one of these rare fabrics is clear. Present from the earliest pottery-bearing level at Knossos (Stratum IX; Evans 1964: 144-7), it is dominated by fragments derived from granodiorite, with lesser amounts of phyllite and basaltic rocks (FIGURE 5, FIGURE 7). This distinctive combination of lithologies is present in later ceramic fabrics, commonly known as ‘Mirabello’ fabric, produced on the northern edge of the Isthmus of Ierapetra, East Crete. Indeed a close match for the EN fabric from Knossos has been found in pottery dated to the Final Neolithic found within this area of the Isthmus (Kavousi) (Haggis 1995) (FIGURE 6). Thus an origin for this fabric is confirmed around 70 km distant from Knossos. This fabric forms only a small part of the emerging picture. Nevertheless, its discussion here illustrates the wealth of information revealed when a local provenance for Neolithic ceramics is not assumed and appropriate attention is given to ceramic variability. The full publication of analyses is in preparation, however a number of observations can be made: 1 Mineralogical and stylistic evidence suggests that the range of fabrics present at EN Knossos represents the production of ceramic vessels at a number of different settled locations within Crete, mostly in north-central Crete; however the EN ‘Mirabello’ fabric shows a source quite distant from Knossos. 2 The presence of these fabrics at Knossos suggests that the earliest ceramic vessels on Crete were exchanged more frequently and over greater distances than has previously been considered likely. Consequently, the role of ceramics as exchange items may have been underestimated. 3 The EN Cretan landscape seems not to have been empty and dominated by an isolated Knossos, but rather may have been populated by a number of as yet undiscovered and interacting settlements. 4 This identification of an otherwise hidden

Ceramic micropalaeontology: the analysis of microfossils in ancient ceramics

Microfossils can be a common component of ancient ceramic artefacts. Their analysis in this unusual context is a little-known, yet promising, cross-disciplinary application of micropalaeontology. This article presents the first detailed assessment of the phenomenon of microfossils in ancient ceramics and demonstrates how micropalaeontology can contribute to a range of issues in archaeological ceramic analysis and the reconstruction of the human past. In describing a methodology by which micropalaeontologists and archaeologists can analyse microfossiliferous ceramics, this paper presents the foundations of an approach, which is here referred to as ‘ceramic micropalaeontology’.

A lepidopterous cocoon from Thera and evidence for silk in the Aegean Bronze Age

What were the fine garments vividly painted in the Minoan frescoes made of? Fine cotton (cotton from Egypt is still prized today)? Or the yet finer fabric of silk? And if silk, where did the stuff, or knowledge of cultivating the silk-worms, come from? A cocoon from Santorini offers new evidence.

Early Minoan and Middle Minoan pottery groups at Knossos

This paper is a summary of the results of a workshop held at Knossos in August 1992. The aims of the workshop were to examine the most coherent and reliable deposits, place them in a chronological sequence, and decide on common terminologies and definitions. This brief paper provides a framework and serves as a common introduction to various detailed studies of Knossian EM–MM pottery by the various authors which have appeared, are in press, or are forthcoming.

EM I chronology and social practice: pottery from the early palace tests at Knossos

This article presents a stylistic assessment of the pottery from early tests (1900–1905) at Knossos that may be assigned to EM I. There follows a discussion of the problems of ceramic phasing of EM I Knossos and the relative chronology of Central Crete with the South Aegean in EB I. Finally, the social context of ceramic consumption at EM I Knossos and North-Central Crete is explored, and the possible evidence this may provide for ritualised social practice at Knossos and emergent social differentiation and power.

Plus ça change: pots, crucibles and the development of metallurgy in Chalcolithic Las Pilas (Mojácar, Spain)

This paper considers the structure of production, distribution and consumption of ceramics within Chalcolithic communities of SE Iberia, an important region for modelling social and technological change in the recent prehistory of Eurasia. Our research provides new data through the comparative analysis of domestic and metallurgical ceramics, as well as building and other clay-rich materials from the archaeological site of Las Pilas (2875–2620 cal. BC 2σ to 2460–2205 cal. BC 2σ) (Mojácar, Almería). In total, 56 samples are characterised by optical petrography, with SEM analysis of 22 of those individuals, in order to assess firing conditions. Results point to the existence of a local tradition in which domestic and metallurgical wares exhibit important similarities in their production processes. In terms of technology, the assemblage shows a relative homogeneity, although firing conditions, surface treatment and decoration seem to have played an important role in the differentiation of highly symbolic wares from other ceramics. We conclude that raw material procurement and processing at Las Pilas differ from those at other Copper Age sites already studied in SE and SW Iberia. This is in agreement with earlier archaeometallurgical studies on Las Pilas, suggesting the development of local and community-based technological traditions. As such, the paper attempts to bridge the recent divide between re-emergent top-down models and our detailed understandings of technological practice.

Reconstructing change in firing technology during the Final Neolithic–Early Bronze Age transition in Phaistos, Crete. Just the tip of the iceberg?

Changes in firing practice have been suggested as representing a revolution in ceramic technology at the beginning of the Bronze Age in Crete. The introduction of kiln structures has been held responsible for such a change, perhaps by newcomers to the island, along with other innovative technologies. However, these hypotheses were often based on limited analytical data and mostly on macroscopic examination. This paper re-examines the suggestion of a transformation in firing technology at the beginning of the Bronze Age by presenting analyses of the rich ceramic assemblage from the site of Phaistos in South-Central Crete, which offers a rare, good stratigraphic sequence from the end of the Final Neolithic into the Early Bronze Age. Here, firing technology is reconstructed by macroscopic examination of colour across vessel breaks, by SEM examination and FT-IR analysis. This allows the reconstruction of temperature ranges and firing rates over the phases considered and a re-assessment of changes in firing technology, revealing a more multi-faceted pattern of change. Finally, changes in firing procedure are contextualised in the overall ceramic operational sequence, revealing a complex, stepped picture of change in ceramic production over the transition from the Final Neolithic.