Peter Pohl

No facilitator required for membrane transport of hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has emerged as a new and important member in the group of gaseous signaling molecules. However, the molecular transport mechanism has not yet been identified. Because of structural similarities with H2O, it was hypothesized that aquaporins may facilitate H2S transport across cell membranes. We tested this hypothesis by reconstituting the archeal aquaporin AfAQP from sulfide reducing bacteria Archaeoglobus fulgidus into planar membranes and by monitoring the resulting facilitation of osmotic water flow and H2S flux. To measure H2O and H2S fluxes, respectively, sodium ion dilution and buffer acidification by proton release (H2S ⇆ H+ + HS−) were recorded in the immediate membrane vicinity. Both sodium ion concentration and pH were measured by scanning ion-selective microelectrodes. A lower limit of lipid bilayer permeability to H2S, PM,H2S ≥ 0.5 ± 0.4 cm/s was calculated by numerically solving the complete system of differential reaction diffusion equations and fitting the theoretical pH distribution to experimental pH profiles. Even though reconstitution of AfAQP significantly increased water permeability through planar lipid bilayers, PM,H2S remained unchanged. These results indicate that lipid membranes may well act as a barrier to water transport although they do not oppose a significant resistance to H2S diffusion. The fact that cholesterol and sphingomyelin reconstitution did not turn these membranes into an H2S barrier indicates that H2S transport through epithelial barriers, endothelial barriers, and membrane rafts also occurs by simple diffusion and does not require facilitation by membrane channels.

Fast and Selective Ammonia Transport by Aquaporin-8

The transport of ammonia/ammonium is fundamental to nitrogen metabolism in all forms of life. So far, no clear picture has emerged as to whether a protein channel is capable of transporting exclusively neutral NH3 while excluding H+ and \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(\mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}\) \end{document}. Our research is the first stoichiometric study to show the selective transport of NH3 by a membrane channel. The purified water channel protein aquaporin-8 was reconstituted into planar bilayers, and the exclusion of \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(\mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}\) \end{document} or H+ was established by ensuring a lack of current under voltage clamp conditions. The single channel water permeability coefficient of 1.2 × 10–14 cm3/subunit/s was established by imposing an osmotic gradient across reconstituted planar bilayers, and resulting minute changes in ionic concentration close to the membrane surface were detected. It is more than 2-fold smaller than the single channel ammonia permeability (2.7 × 10–14 cm3/subunit/s) that was derived by establishing a transmembrane ammonium concentration gradient and measuring the resulting concentration increases adjacent to the membrane. This permeability ratio suggests that electrically silent ammonia transport may be the main function of AQP8.

Water Determines the Structure and Dynamics of Proteins

Water is an essential participant in the stability, structure, dynamics, and function of proteins and other biomolecules. Thermodynamically, changes in the aqueous environment affect the stability of biomolecules. Structurally, water participates chemically in the catalytic function of proteins and nucleic acids and physically in the collapse of the protein chain during folding through hydrophobic collapse and mediates binding through the hydrogen bond in complex formation. Water is a partner that slaves the dynamics of proteins, and water interaction with proteins affect their dynamics. Here we provide a review of the experimental and computational advances over the past decade in understanding the role of water in the dynamics, structure, and function of proteins. We focus on the combination of X-ray and neutron crystallography, NMR, terahertz spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, thermodynamics, and computer simulations to reveal how water assist proteins in their function. The recent advances in computer simulations and the enhanced sensitivity of experimental tools promise major advances in the understanding of protein dynamics, and water surely will be a protagonist.

Compartmentalization of cAMP-Dependent Signaling by Phosphodiesterase-4D Is Involved in the Regulation of Vasopressin-Mediated Water Reabsorption in Renal Principal Cells

The cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent insertion of water channel aquaporin-2 (AQP2)-bearing vesicles into the plasma membrane in renal collecting duct principal cells (AQP2 shuttle) constitutes the molecular basis of arginine vasopressin (AVP)-regulated water reabsorption. cAMP/PKA signaling systems are compartmentalized by A kinase anchoring proteins (AKAP) that tether PKA to subcellular sites and by phosphodiesterases (PDE) that terminate PKA signaling through hydrolysis of localized cAMP. In primary cultured principal cells, AVP causes focal activation of PKA. PKA and cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase-4D (PDE4D) are located on AQP2-bearing vesicles. The selective PDE4 inhibitor rolipram increases AKAP-tethered PKA activity on AQP2-bearing vesicles and enhances the AQP2 shuttle and thereby the osmotic water permeability. AKAP18delta, which is located on AQP2-bearing vesicles, directly interacts with PDE4D and PKA. In response to AVP, PDE4D and AQP2 translocate to the plasma membrane. Here PDE4D is activated through PKA phosphorylation and reduces the osmotic water permeability. Taken together, a novel, compartmentalized, and physiologically relevant cAMP-dependent signal transduction module on AQP2-bearing vesicles, comprising anchored PDE4D, AKAP18delta, and PKA, has been identified.

Carbon Dioxide Transport through Membranes

Several membrane channels, like aquaporin-1 (AQP1) and the RhAG protein of the rhesus complex, were hypothesized to be of physiological relevance for CO2 transport. However, the underlying assumption that the lipid matrix imposes a significant barrier to CO2 diffusion was never confirmed experimentally. Here we have monitored transmembrane CO2 flux (JCO2) by imposing a CO2 concentration gradient across planar lipid bilayers and detecting the resulting small pH shift in the immediate membrane vicinity. An analytical model, which accounts for the presence of both carbonic anhydrase and buffer molecules, was fitted to the experimental pH profiles using inverse problems techniques. At pH 7.4, the model revealed that JCO2 was entirely rate-limited by near-membrane unstirred layers (USL), which act as diffusional barriers in series with the membrane. Membrane tightening by sphingomyelin and cholesterol did not alter JCO2 confirming that membrane resistance was comparatively small. In contrast, a pH-induced shift of the CO2 hydration-dehydration equilibrium resulted in a relative membrane contribution of about 15% to the total resistance (pH 9.6). Under these conditions, a membrane CO2 permeability (3.2 ± 1.6 cm/s) was estimated. It indicates that cellular CO2 uptake (pH 7.4) is always USL-limited, because the USL size always exceeds 1 μm. Consequently, facilitation of CO2 transport by AQP1, RhAG, or any other protein is highly unlikely. The conclusion was confirmed by the observation that CO2 permeability of epithelial cell monolayers was always the same whether AQP1 was overexpressed in both the apical and basolateral membranes or not.

Ultrasound enhancement of liposome-mediated cell transfection is caused by cavitation effects

Cationic liposomes (CL) are widely used vectors for gene transfer. Recently, ultrasound (US) was reported to enhance liposome-mediated gene transfer to eucaryotic cells in culture. The present study was aimed at studying the effects of 2-MHz pulsed Doppler US on malignant brain tumor cells transfection by cationic liposome/plasmid-DNA complexes (lipoplexes). Cationic liposomes consisting of DOSPA/DOPE were complexed with a plasmid carrying the cDNA encoding green autofluorescent protein (EGFP). Rodent (9L) and canine (J3T) glioma cells were exposed to pulsed US in the presence of EGFP-lipoplexes. A diagnostic transcranial Doppler device (MultiDop L) was used for insonation for 30, 60, and 90 s at 2 MHz/0.5 W/cm(2). To eliminate US reflection and cavitation, a custom-made absorption chamber was designed, where US is applied through a water tank before interacting with the cells and is fully absorbed after passing through the cell layer. Expression of the marker gene EGFP was quantified by FACS analysis and intravital fluorescent microscopy. Cell viability was accessed by Trypan Blue staining. US treatment of tumor cells on microplates for 60 s yielded a significant increase in transfection rates without damaging the cells, but 90-s treatment killed most of the cells. In the absorption chamber, no significant effects of US on transfection were noted. Additional experiments employed US contrast agent (Levovist, Schering) which was able to significantly increase tumor cell transfection rate by enhancing cavitation effects, and also severely damaged most cells when applied at a concentration of 200 mg/mL. In conclusion, our results support the assumption that US effects on lipoplex transfection rates in brain tumor cells in culture are mediated by cavitation effects.

The Size of the Unstirred Layer as a Function of the Solute Diffusion Coefficient

By monitoring the concentration distribution of several solutes that are diffusing at the same time under given mixing conditions, it was established that the unstirred layer (USL) has no clearly defined boundary. For the cases of solute permeation and water movement across planar bilayer lipid membranes, respectively, experiments carried out with double-barreled microelectrodes have shown that the thickness of the USL depends on which species is diffusing. Small molecules with a larger diffusion coefficient encounter an apparently thicker USL than larger molecules with a smaller diffusion coefficient. The ratio of the USL thicknesses of two different substances is equal to the third root of the ratio of the respective diffusion coefficients. This experimental finding is in good agreement with theoretical predictions from the theory of physicochemical hydrodynamics.

Protons and Hydroxide Ions in Aqueous Systems.

Understanding the structure and dynamics of waters constituent ions, proton and hydroxide, has been a subject of numerous experimental and theoretical studies over the last century. Besides their obvious importance in acid-base chemistry, these ions play an important role in numerous applications ranging from enzyme catalysis to environmental chemistry. Despite a long history of research, many fundamental issues regarding their properties continue to be an active area of research. Here, we provide a review of the experimental and theoretical advances made in the last several decades in understanding the structure, dynamics, and transport of the proton and hydroxide ions in different aqueous environments, ranging from water clusters to the bulk liquid and its interfaces with hydrophobic surfaces. The propensity of these ions to accumulate at hydrophobic surfaces has been a subject of intense debate, and we highlight the open issues and challenges in this area. Biological applications reviewed include proton transport along the hydration layer of various membranes and through channel proteins, problems that are at the core of cellular bioenergetics.

Structural Proton Diffusion along Lipid Bilayers

For H(+) transport between protein pumps, lateral diffusion along membrane surfaces represents the most efficient pathway. Along lipid bilayers, we measured a diffusion coefficient of 5.8 x 10(-5) cm(2) s(-1). It is too large to be accounted for by vehicle diffusion, considering proton transport by acid carriers. Such a speed of migration is accomplished only by the Grotthuss mechanism involving the chemical exchange of hydrogen nuclei between hydrogen-bonded water molecules on the membrane surface, and the subsequent reorganization of the hydrogen-bonded network. Reconstitution of H(+)-binding sites on the membrane surface decreased the velocity of H(+) diffusion. In the absence of immobile buffers, structural (Grotthuss) diffusion occurred over a distance of 100 micro m as shown by microelectrode aided measurements of the spatial proton distribution in the immediate membrane vicinity and spatially resolved fluorescence measurements of interfacial pH. The efficiency of the anomalously fast lateral diffusion decreased gradually with an increase in mobile buffer concentration suggesting that structural diffusion is physiologically important for distances of approximately 10 nm.

Cyclic AMP is sufficient for triggering the exocytic recruitment of aquaporin‐2 in renal epithelial cells

The initial response of renal epithelial cells to the antidiuretic hormone arginine vasopressin (AVP) is an increase in cyclic AMP. By applying immunofluorescence, cell membrane capacitance and transepithelial water flux measurements we show that cAMP alone is sufficient to elicit the antidiuretic cellular response in primary cultured epithelial cells from renal inner medulla, namely the transport of aquaporin‐2 (AQP2)‐bearing vesicles to, and their subsequent fusion with, the plasma membrane (AQP2 shuttle). The AQP2 shuttle is evoked neither by AVP‐independent Ca2+ increases nor by AVP‐induced Ca2+ increases. However, clamping cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations below resting levels at 25 nM inhibited exocytosis. Exocytosis was confined to a slow monophasic response, and readily releasable vesicles were missing. Analysis of endocytic capacitance steps revealed that cAMP does not decelerate the retrieval of AQP2 from the plasma membrane. Our data suggest that cAMP initiates an early step, namely the transport of AQP2‐bearing vesicles towards the plasma membrane, and do not support a regulatory function for Ca2+ in the AQP2 shuttle.