Peter R. Kramer

Vitamins and Minerals

The fat-soluble vitamins, vitamins A, D1, D2, D3, E, and K, and the water-soluble vitamins, vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, and C, are all described in detail in this chapter. Both their structure and their biochemical functions are described. Essential minerals are also described, Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S, Fe, Ma, Cu, Zn, Co, Fl, Bo, and Se.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system governs the body. Pituitary hormones manage the body. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) governs thyroxine and triiodothyronine release by the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormones control basal metabolic rate in the body. They control the bone growth, the body’s sensitivity to epinephrine and norepinephrine, and control fat and carbohydrate metabolism. Pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) controls adrenal gland hydrocortisone production, which is a human stress hormone. Hydrocortisone elevates the blood pressure and prepares the body for a fight or flight response. When stress is detected, hydrocortisone generates blood glucose to cope with the body’s stress issue. Hydrocortisone promotes the human immune system and in that respect has become an administered universal panaceas to promote healing. ACTH also promotes adrenal aldosterone production. This circulates throughout the body and acts on an intracellular receptor within the tubules of the kidney. It regulates and activates the Na + /K + balance pumps within the kidney

Chapter 6.4 – Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system, including coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction or heart attack, stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA), vascular diseases, and/or peripheral arterial diseases. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of deaths worldwide. Although cardiovascular diseases primarily affect older adults, atherosclerosis, beginning in early life, affects children and youths. Efforts should be directed on preventing atherosclerosis by modifying risk, for example by healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding tobacco use.

Chapter 1.2 – Human Chemistry

This chapter presents a broad introduction to biochemistry. It examines sugars, amino acids, fats, and nucleotides as individual groups. It examines the oligomers and polymers and oddball structures of sugars, fats, and amino acids. The standard chemical groups of biochemistry are introduced as the standard polymers and standard structures.

Chapter 1.4 – Amino Acid Metabolism

This chapter examines the synthetic and degradative pathways of the nine amino acids that are made in humans, Ala, Asp, Asn, Cys, Glu, Gln, Gly, Pro, and Ser. We first examine the five amino acids that are synthesized by off-shoot pathways of the citric acid cycle and that are degraded into this cycle. Amino acid degradation feeds into the citric acid cycles and so can produce the NADH and FADH2 needed to generate energy.

DNA and Human Genetics

This chapter examines the biochemistry of ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides, how deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is made, and DNA structure. The chapter goes through the processes of DNA replication, DNA transcription, messenger RNA (mRNA) splicing, and DNA translation or producing proteins from mRNA. It then examines the structures of genes and chromosomes.

Skin, Ligaments, and Muscles

The skin comprises three layers of tissue: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Muscles are the structural elements that drive human bodily movement, whether the beating of the heart, the raising of the hand, or the exertion of the legs or feet. Muscle tissue varies with function and location through the body. There are three classes of muscle tissue in the body: skeletal or striated muscle, smooth or nonstriated muscle, and cardiac muscle. A ligament is the fibrous tissue or connective tissue that connects bones to other bones. It is also the connective tissue of the body. Ligaments are similar to tendons as they are all made of connective tissue.

The Heart and Lungs

The right atrium of the heart pumps in the oxygen deprived blood from the body’s veins. It leaves the right ventricle to travel to the lungs. The left atrium pumps in the oxygenated blood coming from the lungs. The left ventricle pumps out the oxygenated blood through the arteries of the body. The lungs are strictly a site to oxygenate hemoglobin and to diffuse CO 2 out of the blood.

The Kidney Filtration System

The kidney filters the blood using millions of parallel glomerulus-tube-collecting duct filtration mechanisms or nephrons (Figure 3.7.1). Each nephron filters blood in parallel to each other. A normal kidney contains 0.80-1.5 million nephrons. The main function of nephrons is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts and nitrogen containing products in blood by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed, and excreting the rest as urine. A nephron rids the body of waste, regulates blood volume and blood pressure, controls levels of salts in the blood, and regulates blood pH.

Chapter 2.1 – The Skeleton

The human skeleton comprises a large mixture of bones. The smallest bones in the body are the malleus, incus, and stapes, which oscillate in the ear. The biggest bones in the body are the femurs or thigh bones, which allow you to walk strong and clear.