Peter Raynor

Are the Major Risk/Need Factors Predictive of Both Female and Male Reoffending? A Test With the Eight Domains of the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory

The Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI) and the Youth version (YLS/CMI) generate an assessment of risk/need across eight domains that are considered to be relevant for girls and boys and for women and men. Aggregated across five data sets, the predictive validity of each of the eight domains was gender-neutral. The composite total score (LS/CMI total risk/need) was strongly associated with the recidivism of males (mean r = .39, mean AUC = .746) and very strongly associated with the recidivism of females (mean r = .53, mean AUC = .827). The enhanced validity of LS total risk/need with females was traced to the exceptional validity of Substance Abuse with females. The intra–data set conclusions survived the introduction of two very large samples composed of female offenders exclusively. Finally, the mean incremental contributions of gender and the gender–by–risk level interactions in the prediction of criminal recidivism were minimal compared to the relatively strong validity of the LS/CMI risk level. Although the variance explained by gender was minimal and although high-risk cases were high-risk cases regardless of gender, the recidivism rates of lower risk females were lower than the recidivism rates of lower risk males, suggesting possible implications for test interpretation and policy.

Risk and need assessment in British probation: the contribution of LSI-R

Abstract From 1996 until about 2000 the Canadian Level of Service Inventory – Revised (LSI-R) was in use in a number of probation services in England and Wales, and it is still in use in the Jersey Probation and After-Care Service. This article reviews what has been learned about risk and need assessment in British probation through the use of LSI-R, drawing on data collected for a Home Office study and for evaluative research in Jersey. Particular areas of interest are accuracy, differences between male and female offenders, the comparative effectiveness of probation and community service, the apparent counterproductive impact of probation on low-risk offenders, and the efficacy of risk-related change measurement. The conclusion points out the wide-ranging advantages of risk/need assessment for probation services, and discusses why services in England and Wales have been slow to benefit from this.

Young mothers who choose to breast feed: the importance of being part of a supportive breast-feeding community

OBJECTIVE to examine factors associated with breast-feeding initiation and duration in young mothers (≤24 years). DESIGN a retrospective questionnaire completed between six and 24 months post partum. SETTING mothers were recruited from local mother and infant groups, nurseries and online mother and infant forums. PARTICIPANTS 138 mothers aged between 17 and 24 years (mean age 21.93 years) MEASUREMENTS AND FINDINGS participants completed a retrospective questionnaire about their experience of breast or artificial milk feeding during the first six months post partum. A further 10 mothers who breast fed for at least six months completed a semi-structured interview. Breast feeding for at least six months was positively associated with attending a breast-feeding support group, believing breast feeding to be easy, being part of an environment where breast feeding is normative, and being encouraged to breast feed by others. KEY CONCLUSIONS themes raised highlight the importance of viewing breast feeding as the normal way to feed an infant and having others support the mother in this behaviour. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE increasing breast-feeding initiation and duration among this at-risk group is important for both infant and maternal health. Helping mothers to view breast feeding as the norm, creating an environment where breast feeding is accepted, providing professional and peer support, and encouraging the mother to continue breast feeding are important steps in raising breast-feeding rates among younger mothers.

The Probation Service ‘Pathfinders’: Finding the path and losing the way?

Part of the programme of research funded under the Crime Reduction Programme was a group of evaluative studies of innovative probation service projects known as ‘Pathfinders’. These projects were developed as part of the ‘What Works’ initiative which had been pursued by the Probation Service since the mid-1990s, and need to be understood in that context as well as in the context of the Crime Reduction Programme. ‘What Works’ was an attempt to achieve a rapid step-change in the effectiveness of probation work in England and Wales through systematic application of international research on effective methods for the rehabilitation of offenders. The studies carried out with the Crime Reduction Programme support represented a resurgence of research interest in the effective supervision of offenders, after a period of relative neglect. However, the results of the studies have been less positive than was hoped and expected by Probation Service leaders. This article explores some of the arguments which are currently being put forward to account for this, and considers in particular the problems of implementation and time-scale which afflicted the projects, the narrow model of evaluation which informed the research strategy, and the limited role of evidence in a criminal justice context dominated by politically driven initiatives.

What works in resettlement? Findings from seven Pathfinders for short-term prisoners in England and Wales:

This article presents findings from the evaluation of Phase One of the resettlement ‘Pathfinder’, which was funded under the Home Office Crime Reduction Programme. Seven projects (four probation-led and three run by voluntary agencies) targeted the resettlement needs and/or offending behaviour of adults sentenced to prison for under 12 months, who are currently not subject to post-release supervision. All participants received help with welfare needs, and some attended a short cognitive motivational programme. The results suggest that such interventions can significantly reduce the problems faced by this frequently neglected group, as well as having a positive effect on their attitudes to crime. There was also some evidence of reductions in reconviction, especially among those who maintained contact with mentors after release. The findings have implications for the Governments resettlement agenda, as set out in the Reducing Re-offending National Action Plan, as well as for NOMS policy and practice. The shelving of plans for the introduction of ‘Custody Plus’, it is argued, creates a risk that potentially effective ‘through the gate’ work with short-termers will not come to fruition.

‘What Works’ and the Correctional Services Accreditation Panel: Taking stock from an inside perspective

This article provides an ‘insider’ perspective on the work of the Correctional Services Accreditation Panel (CSAP) of England and Wales, a key plank of the government’s ‘What Works’ strategy and in particular its aim of reducing re-offending through the development of ‘gold standard’, ‘evidence-based’ interventions (principally — but not exclusively — offending behaviour programmes). The article begins with a brief discussion of the concept of accreditation, its value and potential drawbacks. It then provides an account of CSAP’s working practices and some reflections on the results of its work so far, set against the background of challenges and tensions arising from a changing policy environment, resource constraints, mixed results from outcome studies, and debates about what some perceived as an over-narrow remit for accreditation. It concludes with some thoughts about possible future directions for CSAP or successor bodies with broadly similar goals.

The impact of skills in probation work: a reconviction study

This article reports on the results of a quasi-experimental study of practitioners’ skills in probation work. Videotaped interviews were produced by a group of probation officers and analysed by researchers using a checklist designed to identify the range of skills used in one-to-one supervision. Reconviction rates were found to be significantly lower among those whose supervisors were assessed as using a wider range of skills. The article also reviews the recent history of research on practitioners’ skills in probation, and considers the implications of positive findings from this and other studies.

Maternal control of child-feeding during breast and formula feeding in the first 6 months post-partum

BACKGROUND Mothers who breastfeed use lower levels of control over later child diet. The baby-led nature of breastfeeding may encourage this low control to develop. Alternatively maternal desire for control may drive breastfeeding duration. The present study explored whether differences in maternal control are present during milk feeding and whether these stem from or drive breastfeeding duration. METHODS Five hundred and two mothers with an infant aged 6-12 months completed a modified retrospective version of the child-feeding questionnaire adapted to reflect milk feeding during the first 6 months post-partum. Participants were recruited from mother and baby groups and online parenting forums. Mothers recalled their use of encouraging intake and scheduling feeds in relation to their infants intake of milk. Attitudes towards breastfeeding were also measured, including views that breastfeeding is inconvenient, difficult and that formula-fed infants were more content. RESULTS Compared to mothers who formula-fed or ceased breastfeeding within 1 week, mothers who breastfed for at least 6 months recalled a lower use of scheduling and encouraging milk feeds. Mothers who initiated breastfeeding but ceased within 1 week reported lower control compared to exclusive formula feeders. A high level of scheduling feeds was associated with considering that breastfeeding was inconvenient and a greater perceived infant size, whereas encouraging feeds was associated with considering that breastfeeding was difficult, low maternal confidence and a smaller perceived infant size. CONCLUSIONS Maternal desire for control may drive breastfeeding duration. A controlling maternal feeding style may therefore be dispositional and present much earlier than current studies suggest.

Indices of Multiple Deprivation predict breastfeeding duration in England and Wales

BACKGROUND To investigate the association between breastfeeding duration and socio-economic status as measured by the English and Welsh Indices of Multiple Deprivation (IMD). METHODS Total 216 multiparous women whose youngest or only child was between 6 and 24 months completed a retrospective questionnaire study of infant feeding between birth and 26 weeks. Measurements included breast-feeding history; socio-economic demography and IMD. RESULTS Breastfeeding duration was associated with levels of multiple deprivation in both English and Welsh samples. Deprivation level and breastfeeding duration were associated with traditional indicators of socio-economic status. When considered in combination with other socio-economic indicators of breastfeeding duration, the deprivation level remained a strong predictor of breastfeeding duration over and above other socio-economic measures. CONCLUSIONS Deprivation, as assessed by the IMD is predictive of breastfeeding duration. Postcode and thus deprivation level can be used as a non-intrusive way to identify women most at risk of low breastfeeding rates. Service provision can be targeted directly at women in areas recognized at being high in deprivation.

‘Why help offenders? Arguments for rehabilitation as a penal strategy’,

This article considers the variety of theoretical justifications, or moral arguments, which have been put forward to support approaches that can be broadly described as ‘rehabilitative’. The article takes an historical approach, tracing the development of ideas supportive of rehabilitation which begins with the origins of probation in England & Wales, and the Christian mission to ‘save souls’. In the twentieth century context, we consider the emergence of a utilitarian emphasis on maximising decent and productive members of society, subsequently challenged by arguments which emphasised state-obligated or ‘rights-based’ rehabilitation. More recently, utilitarian arguments emphasising rehabilitations contribution to public safety and ‘risk reduction’ have risen to the fore. However, we argue that justifications which emphasise offenders, victims and/or communities as beneficiaries of rehabilitation need not be in conflict; nor should probation services have to choose between the broad ranges of stakeholders they are potentially able to serve.