Peter Šebej

Fluorescein analogues as photoremovable protecting groups absorbing at ∼520 nm.

A new photoremovable protecting group, (6-hydroxy-3-oxo-3H-xanthen-9-yl)methyl (1), with a molar absorption coefficient ε of ∼4 × 10(4) m(-1) cm(-1) at ∼520 nm for the release of carboxylates or phosphates is reported. Three derivatives of 1 (diethyl phosphate, acetate, and bromide) were isolated as complexes with DDQ and shown to release the ligands with quantum yields ≤2.4% in aqueous solution.

Fluorescein analogue xanthene-9-carboxylic acid: a transition-metal-free CO releasing molecule activated by green light.

6-Hydroxy-3-oxo-3H-xanthene-9-carboxylic acid is introduced as the first transition-metal-free carbon monoxide releasing molecule activated by visible light (photoCORM). This water-soluble fluorescein analogue releases carbon monoxide in both water and methanol upon irradiation at 500 nm. When selectively irradiated in the presence of hemoglobin (Hb) under physiological conditions, released CO is quantitatively trapped to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). The reaction progress can be accurately monitored by characteristic absorption and emission properties of the reactants and products.

Small-Molecule Fluorophores with Large Stokes Shifts: 9-Iminopyronin Analogues as Clickable Tags

The design, synthesis, and both experimental and theoretical studies of several novel 9-(acylimino)- and 9-(sulfonylimino)pyronin derivatives containing either an oxygen or a silicon atom at position 10 are reported. These compounds, especially the Si analogues, exhibit remarkably large Stokes shifts (around 200 nm) while still possessing a high fluorophore brightness, absorption bands in the near-UV and visible part of the spectrum, and high thermal and photochemical stabilities in protic solvents. The reason for the observed large Stokes shifts is an intramolecular charge-transfer excitation of an electron from the HOMO to the LUMO of the chromophore, accompanied by elongation of the C9-N bond and considerable solvent reorganization due to hydrogen bonding to the solvent. Due to the photophysical properties of the studied compounds and their facile and high-yielding synthesis, as well as a simple protocol for their bioorthogonal ligation to a model saccharide using a Huisgen alkyne-azide cycloaddition, they represent excellent candidates for biochemical and biological applications as fluorescent tags and indicators for multichannel imaging. 9-(Acylimino)pyronins alter their optical properties upon protonation and may also be used as pH sensors.

Near-Infrared Fluorescent 9-Phenylethynylpyronin Analogues for Bioimaging

The syntheses and biological applications of two novel fluorescent 9-phenylethynylpyronin analogues containing either carbon or silicon at the position 10 are reported. Both fluorescent probes exhibited a relatively strong fluorescence in methanol and phosphate buffer saline in the near-infrared region (705-738 nm) upon irradiation of either of their absorption maxima in the blue and red regions. The compounds showed high selectivity toward mitochondria in myeloma cells in vivo and allowed their visualization in a favored tissue-transparent window, which makes them promising NIR fluorescent tags for applications in bioimaging.

CTAB/water/chloroform reverse micelles: a closed or open association model?

The micellization of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) in chloroform in the presence of water was examined. Three scenarios of the reverse micelle formation, the closed, open and Eickes association models, were considered in the interpretation of the experimental data. The growth of the aggregates was observed through the changes of NMR signals of associated water, probing the microenvironment of the premicellar aggregates and the interior of reverse micelles. This technique if combined with isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) revealed that hydrated surfactant premicellar aggregates are already present at ∼6 mM CTAB. NMR, ITC and conductometry were used to determine the critical micelle concentration (cmc) to be ∼40 mM CTAB. It is suggested that the variation of the cmc values reflects the fact that the NMR analysis indicated the beginning of the reverse micelle formation, whereas conductometry and ITC measurements provided the upper limit and an average value of a so-called apparent cmc, respectively. The cmc values were found to be unaffected by the water content. The presence of reverse micelles, the existence of multiple equilibria, and high polydispersity of the samples were evidenced by DOSY NMR spectroscopy. As a result, we validated Eickes association model, according to which cyclic inverse micelles are formed by a structural reorganization of linear associates within a narrow concentration range, called the apparent cmc. New experimental results have also been gained for micellization of cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC) in chloroform in the presence of water; a similar mechanism of reverse micelle formation has been suggested.

The Power of Solvent in Altering the Course of Photorearrangements

A clean bifurcation between two important photochemical reactions through competition of a triplet state Type II H-abstraction reaction with a photo-Favorskii rearrangement for (o/p)-hydroxy-o-methylphenacyl esters that depends on the water content of the solvent has been established. The switch from the anhydrous Type II pathway that yields indanones to the aqueous-dependent pathway producing benzofuranones occurs abruptly at low water concentrations (~8%). The surprisingly clean yields suggest that such reactions are synthetically promising.

Photochemistry of 2-nitrobenzylidene acetals.

Photolysis of dihydroxy compounds (diols) protected as 2-nitrobenzylidene acetals (ONBA) and subsequent acid- or base-catalyzed hydrolysis of the 2-nitrosobenzoic acid ester intermediates result in an efficient and high-yielding release of the substrates. We investigated the scope and limitations of ONBA photochemistry and expanded upon earlier described two-step procedures to show that the protected diols of many structural varieties can also be liberated in a one-pot procedure. In view of the fact that the acetals of nonsymmetrically substituted diols are converted into one of the corresponding 2-nitrosobenzoic acid ester isomers with moderate to high regioselectivity, the mechanism of their formation was studied using various experimental techniques. The experimental data were found to be in agreement with DFT-based quantum chemical calculations that showed the preferential cleavage occurs on the acetal C-O bond in the vicinity of more electron-withdrawing (or less electron-donating) groups. The study also revealed considerable complexity in the cleavage mechanism and that the structural variations in the substrate can significantly alter the reaction pathway. This deprotection strategy was found to be also applicable for 2-thioethanol when released from the corresponding monothioacetal in the presence of a reducing agent, such as ascorbic acid.

Fluorinated photoremovable protecting groups: the influence of fluoro substituents on the photo-Favorskii rearrangement

To further explore the nature of the photo-Favorskii rearrangement and its commitment to substrate photorelease from p-hydroxyphenacyl (pHP), an array of ten new fluorinated pHP gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) derivatives was synthesized and photolyzed. The effects of fluorine substitution on the chromophore and the photophysical and photochemical properties of these new chromophores were shown to be derived primarily from the changes in the ground state pK(a) of the phenolic groups. The quantum yields and rate constants for release are clustered around Phi(dis) = 0.20 +/- 0.05 and k(r) = 8 +/- 7 x 10(7) s(-1) (H2O), respectively. The triplet lifetimes of the pHP GABA derivatives were concentrated in the range of 0.4-6.0 ns (H2O). The corresponding deprotonated conjugate bases displayed reduced efficiencies by 50% or more (one exception) and exhibited a weak fluorescence in pH 8.2 buffer. Pump-probe spectroscopy studies have further defined the rates of intersystem crossing and the lifetimes of the reactive triplet state of the fluoro pHP chromophore.

Adiabatic triplet state tautomerization of p-hydroxyacetophenone in aqueous solution.

The primary photophysical processes of p-hydroxyacetophenone (HA) and the ensuing proton transfer reactions in aqueous solution were investigated by picosecond pump-probe spectroscopy and nanosecond laser flash photolysis. Previous studies have led to mutually inconsistent conclusions. The combined data allow us to rationalize the excited-state proton transfer processes of HA in terms of a comprehensive, well-established reaction scheme. Following fast and quantitative ISC to the triplet state, (3)HA*, adiabatic proton transfer through solvent water simultaneously forms both the anion, (3)A(-)*, and the quinoid triplet enol tautomer, (3)Q*. The latter subsequently equilibrates with its anion (3)A(-)*. Ionization and tautomerization are likely to compete with the desired release reactions of p-hydroxyphenacyl photoremovable protecting groups.

Nature of CTAB/Water/Chloroform Reverse Micelles at Above- and Subzero Temperatures Studied by NMR and Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The nature and stability of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) reverse micelles in chloroform formed above the critical micellar concentration at above- and subzero temperatures were examined by NMR and molecular dynamics simulations. The experiments showed that the supercooled micellar water pool becomes unstable upon cooling to relatively high temperatures (253 K), and smaller micelles are formed. Upon freezing at lower temperatures (233 K), micelles become completely frozen and remain intact in the solution. With an average hydrodynamic radius of approximately 1.3 nm, we estimate that the water pool contains approximately 50 water molecules, which is well below the onset of ice crystal formation. To support the experimental results, molecular dynamics simulations were used to model the structure of CTAB/water/chloroform reverse micelles of different sizes. The MD simulations show that the reverse micelles contain a water pool with bromide anions residing on its surface and their shape is nonspherical, especially in the case of larger water pools. Upon fast freezing, the mobility of the water molecules is suppressed, and the pool becomes more spherical.