Peter Seifert

Comparison of Models Used for UV Index Calculations

Eighteen radiative transfer models in use for calculation of UV index are compared with respect to their results for more than 100 cloud‐free atmospheres, which describe present, possible future and extreme conditions. The comparison includes six multiple‐scattering spectral models, eight fast spectral models and four empirical models. Averages of the results of the six participating multiple‐scattering spectral models are taken as a basis for assessment. The agreement among the multiple‐scattering models is within ±0.5 UV index values for more than 80% of chosen atmospheric parameters. The fast spectral models have very different agreement, between ±1 and up to 12 UV index values. The results of the empirical models agree reasonably well with the reference models but only for the atmospheres for which they have been developed. The data to describe the atmospheric conditions, which are used for the comparison, together with the individual results of all participating models and model descriptions are available on the Internet: http://www.meteo.physik.uni‐muenchen.de/strahlung/cost/.

Mechanical, sensory and glandular structures in the tarsal unguitractor apparatus of Chironomus riparius (Diptera, Chironomidae)

SummaryThe legs of chironomid midges from a laboratory colony were examined in the region of the joint between the fifth tarsal segment and the pretarsus, especially the surface of the unguitractor and the manner in which the unguitractor fits into a ventromedian groove in the edge of the tarsus when the joint is flexed. The region was reconstructed from serial sections to clarify the spatial relations of the internal structures to one another and to the external structures. Ultrastructural characteristics of the cells and cuticle suggest a secretory function of the unguitractor. An amphinematic scoloparium is suspended between the point at which the unguitractor attaches to its tendon and the transverse diaphragm within the tarsus. This mechanoreceptor could serve as a proprioceptive sensor of the position of unguitractor and tarsus; it could also be an exteroceptor, sensing vibration in the substrate and/or the air. In the context of functional morphology, the clamping of the unguitractor in the ventral hollow in the tarsus could have the effect of resetting the sensitivity of the sensor. On the other hand, this arrangement could also simply act as an energy-saving means of fixing the claws in the grasping position for long periods.

Internal extraocular photoreceptors in a dipteran insect

Within the head capsule of the moth-fly Psychoda cinerea, underlying each of the two compound eyes, are two internal ocelli of different sizes. There are seven photoreceptor cells in Ocellus I and two in Ocellus II. The internal Ocellus I appears clearly different from the retina of the compound eye, by different rhabdom structure, different size of pigment granules and different stability of these pigments to solvents. Ocellus II does not contain any pigment granules. The physiological activity of these photoreceptors is indicated by their well-developed axons, the rhabdom structure, organelles produced by membrane reorganization, and adaptation phenomena. The internal ocelli are former larval stemmata that have been displaced inward during metamorphosis. Presumably they have a stimulatory action on the CNS, in analogy with the dorsal ocelli, which are lacking in Psychoda. It is plausible to credit the internal ocelli with a photosensitive role in the functional complex of pacemakers and circadian rhythm.

Adaptive structural changes indicate an evolutionary progression towards the open rhabdom in diptera

In the present paper, all dipteran rhabdoms examined ultrastructurally so far have been compared. For evaluation of their evolutionary stage the following characteristics and their alternatives have been summarized:

Anatomy and ultrastructure of the salivary gland in the thorax of the honeybee worker, Apis mellifera (Insecta, Hymenoptera)

SummaryThe thoracic salivary gland of the worker honeybee was investigated by dissection, light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The glands are paired and each lateral half consists of two parts, a smaller external and a larger internal lobe. The lobes are composed of densely packed secretory tubes and ducts, the tubes of which often show ramifications. A reservoir is packed within the anterior medial part of the gland. The secretory tubes are composed of two types of cells, secretory cells, which are most frequent, and parietal cells. Secretory cells are characterized by a basal labyrinth, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum, dark secretory vesicles, light vesicles of different sizes, and apical microvilli. Parietal cells are smaller and have a characteristically lobed nucleus and no secretory vesicles. Between the cells there are intercellular canaliculi. In the center of each tube there is an extracellular space with a central cuticular channel. The abundance of rough endoplasmic reticulum and the rare occurrence of smooth endoplasmic reticulum implies a saliva with proteins but rarely with pheromones. Between the secretory tubes there are frequently neuronal profiles which are partly in contact with the secretory cells. Thus a nervous control of this gland is, in contrast to previous investigations, clearly demonstrated. The axonal endings contain dark neurosecretory vesicles as well as light synaptic vesicles. Large parts of the glands are surrounded by a thin tissue sheath which has a smooth surface towards the secretory tubes and shows irregular protrusions towards the outer side. This sheath is considered to be a tracheal air sac, and due to its large extension is probably of importance for the hemolymph flow in the thorax.

Regional differences in a nematoceran retina (Insecta, Diptera)

SummaryThe compound eye of Psychoda cinerea comprises two types of ommatidia, arranged so as to divide the retina into distinct dorsal and ventral regions. The P-type ommatidium, in the ventral part of the eye, differs fundamentally from the other dipteran ommatidia so far described, and is regarded as a primitive ommatidium. The acone dioptric apparatus is the same in both types, with a spherical lens and four Semper cells, the processes of which expand below the rhabdom to form a ring of pigment sacs. Only the distal region of the rhabdom is surrounded by a continuous ring of screening pigment, formed by 2 primary and 12–16 secondary pigment cells. The highly pigmented retinula cells penetrate the basement membrane proximally at about the level of their nuclei; in this region they are separated from the hemolymph by glial elements. The rhabdomeres R1–6 are fused to form a tube. The two types of ommatidia are defined by the arrangement of the retinula cells R7/8: in the T type the central rhabdomeres are one below the other, in the usual tandem position, whereas in the P type only R8 is central, with R7 in the peripheral ring. In the proximal region of the retina, retinula cells with parallel microvilli in neighboring ommatidia are joined in rows by lateral processes from the R8 cells. All the rhabdomeres are short and not twisted, which suggests that the retinula cells are highly sensitive to direction of polarization. The eye can adapt by a number of retinomotor processes. These findings, together with observations of behavior, imply that the psychodids have well-developed visual abilities.

Crustacean-like rhabdoms at the dorsal rim of several dipteran eyes (Syrphidae, Tabanidae)

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Morphological evidence for interaction between retinula cells of different ommatidia in the eye of the moth-fly Psychoda cinerea banks (Diptera, Psychodidae)

The fused rhabdoms in the retina of Psychoda cinerea are annular in cross section. Retinula cell R8 is in the center of the ommatidium, surrounded by a cylinder formed by cells R1-R7. In the proximal region of the ommatidium, the cell R8 sends out a lateral process that passes between two cells in the same ommatidium to reach cell R2 of the adjacent ommatidium in the same ommatidial arc. The cells R8 and R2 joined by this process have microvilli oriented in the same direction. The nature of the connection produced by the R8 process is not yet known, but it is thought that the two cells it links, R2 and R8, are in electrotonic communication. In the dorsal part of the eye filamentous accessory pigment cells may be more or less completely interposed between the R8 process and the cell R2 of the adjacent ommatidium; this arrangement suggests that there is also electrotonic communication between the process and the accessory pigment cells. If the physiological properties of cells R8 and R2 were to conform to the general findings in Diptera, such an electronic connection would be expected to affect both the spectral sensitivity and the signal-to-noise ratio of the visual response.