Peter Strelan

Self-objectification and esteem in young women: The mediating role of reasons for exercise

In this study we investigated the interrelationships between self-objectification, reasons for exercise, body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem. A questionnaire that assessed each of these constructs was completed by 104 female participants between the ages of 16 and 25 who exercised regularly at a fitness center. Self-objectification and appearance-related reasons for exercise were significantly negatively related to body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem, and functional reasons for exercise were positively related to each of these outcome measures. Self-objectification also predicted the reasons women exercise. More important, reasons for exercise were found to mediate the relationships between self-objectification and body satisfaction, body esteem, and self-esteem. It was concluded that objectification theory can be extended usefully into the realm of exercise and that, among women who exercise, motivations for exercise account for the reduced body satisfaction and self-esteem for women high on self-objectification.

Complementary medicine and recovery from cancer: The importance of post-traumatic growth

Many users of Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) claim that participation leads to improved well-being; however, contradictory evidence exists, with some studies linking CAM use with poorer quality of life (QoL) or increased distress. This study explored whether an individuals experience of post-traumatic growth (PTG) following cancer may play a role in explaining these disparate outcomes. One hundred and sixty-one cancer survivors (mean age = 58.96, SD = 12.12) completed measures comprised of PTG (Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory), CAM use, QoL (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy scale + Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy Spiritual Well-Being Scale), post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (Impact of Event Scale Revised) and depression, anxiety and stress (21-item short-form Depression Anxiety Stress Scale). A multiple regression controlling for gender, age, general and cancer-specific distress indicated support for PTG as a mediator of the relationship between CAM and QoL. An individuals experience of PTG following cancer may be an important determinant of gaining benefit from participation in CAMs. Future research aimed at identifying potential facilitators of PTG may result in increased benefits of interventions aimed at improving adjustment among cancer survivors.

Threatened State Self-Esteem Reduces Forgiveness

Drawing from theorizing about motivated self-protection, we report the results of four studies testing the idea that threatened state self-esteem reduces forgiving. In Study 1, primed self-esteem threat (versus a control condition) led to decreased forgiving intentions in hypothetical scenarios. In Study 2, primed self-esteem threat (versus two control conditions) negatively affected forgiveness motivations in relation to recalled personally experienced transgressions. Study 3 utilized a correlational recall design, demonstrating that threatened self-esteem directly associated with a personally recalled transgression is negatively related to forgiving motivations. Study 4 returned to a priming paradigm, providing evidence that the deleterious effect of self-esteem threat on forgiveness may be combated by enhancing state-level self-esteem. Theoretical and practical implications and ideas for future research are addressed.

Lay perspectives on the costs and risks of forgiving: Forgiveness costs and risks

In this study, we directly investigated, for the first time, lay perspectives on the costs and risks of forgiveness (N = 130). Participants described previously experienced situations where forgiveness was costly, from the perspective of a grantor, a recipient, and as a third-party observer. They also identified occasions when they thought it would be risky to forgive. We employed complementary quantitative and thematic analysis strategies to examine prevailing themes. The vast majority of participants believed forgiveness was risky, with approximately two thirds reporting both actual and vicarious experiences of costly forgiveness. An overarching theme was that power relations are particularly relevant to laypeople when they consider the costs and risks of forgiving. Although definitions proliferate, theorists generally agree that forgiveness consists of intraand interpersonal processes, in which negative cognitions, emotions, behaviors, and motivations are replaced with positive ones (e.g., McCullough et al., 1998; Worthington, 2001). Arguably the most robust and compelling conclusion from a now-large literature (Scopus cites more than 1,000 forgiveness articles and books) is that forgiveness is a good thing, helping to repair important relationships (for a review, see McCullough, 2008) and improving the health and well-being of forgivers (for a review, see Wade, Hoyt, Kidwell, & Worthington, 2014). Confronted with such evidence, we would surely be wise to accept that, in the words of one scholar, “forgiveness simply works” (Luskin, 2002). Yet, the very nature of forgiveness intuitively suggests that it should not always be beneficial. Forgiveness is generally Peter Strelan, School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia; Shona Crabb, School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia; Debbie Chan, School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia; Laura Jones, School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Correspondence should be addressed to Peter Strelan, School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia, e-mail: peter.strelan@adelaide.edu.au. portrayed as the foregoing of justice and the opportunity for retaliation (for a review, see Strelan, Feather, & McKee, 2008)—yet, we know that justice is extremely important to people (Lerner, 1980) and that retaliation is an instinctive physiological response to a transgression (Rusbult, Hannon, Stocker, & Finkel, 2005). All things being equal, forgiveness in the absence of justice-related responses (e.g., Strelan & Van Prooijen, 2013) may therefore be unsatisfying for victims. Commensurately, we know from lay belief surveys that people often confound forgiveness with constructs such as pardoning, mercy, excusing, and justifying, suggesting that both victims and offenders may consider forgiveness to be weak, allowing offenders to get away with their actions (e.g., Mullet, Girard, & Bakhshi, 2004). And we know that forgiveness is not easily done, that it is a process that takes time (McCullough, Fincham, & Tsang, 2003)—thus, promoting forgiveness as a desirable thing to do may encourage victims to forgive before they are emotionally ready (see Malcolm, 2008, for a discussion of the dangers associated with “pushing” clients toward forgiveness). Some psychologists have considered the implications of forgiving when it is perceived as giving up justice or as weakness or when

How forgiveness promotes offender pro-relational intentions: the mediating role of offender gratitude

Although relationship restoration is an important outcome of forgiveness, little is known about how forgiveness facilitates such an outcome. In addition, in forgiveness research, little attention is paid to the perspective of the offender. We address these two shortcomings simultaneously, testing the idea that forgiveness promotes offender gratitude, which in turn encourages offender pro-relational intentions. Across three experimental studies, participants were induced to believe they had transgressed; recalled a time when they had transgressed; and imagined transgressing. In studies 1 and 2, forgiveness was manipulated; in Study 3, victim motivation for forgiving was manipulated. State gratitude--in comparison with guilt, indebtedness, and positive affect--was consistently found to play the primary mediating role between forgiveness and pro-relational intentions.

When does priming justice promote forgiveness? On the importance of distributive and procedural justice for self and others

Abstract Two studies show that thinking about justice can both enhance and impede forgiveness, depending on whether thoughts about distributive and procedural justice for self and others are activated. In Study 1 (n = 197), participants expressed more forgiveness towards a prior transgressor when primed to think about justice for self or procedural justice for others, and less forgiveness when primed to think about distributive justice for others. Study 2 (n = 231) used an alternate priming method and replicated these effects by inducing an interpersonal transgression and measuring forgiveness intentions, emotions and behavior. Study 2 also showed that priming justice influences forgiveness especially when the perceived severity of an interpersonal offense is high. The current research shows that activating justice cognitions can enhance or impinge on forgiveness in predictable ways. We discuss contributions to emerging justice theory, potential implications, and future directions.

Using the Movies to Illustrate the Principles of Experimental Design

This article presents an innovative technique for teaching the principles of experimental design in a way that is entertaining and engaging for students. Following a lecture on experimental design, students participate in an experiment in which the teacher uses a funny segment from a movie to test the influence of implicit social norms. Randomly allocated “participants” receive either laughter cues from the class (experimenter confederates) or no cues. Condition “hilarity” ratings are compared, and the class as a whole discusses issues relating to experimental design including internal validity, random assignment, and independent and dependent variables. Student feedback, including pre- and postactivity ratings, suggests that the exercise may be useful for enhancing students’ understanding of experimental design. Most importantly, the exercise provides a fertile context for active learning, and the usefulness of the exercise does not rely on the “success” of the experiment itself.

Justice and Forgiveness in Interpersonal Relationships

People typically view justice and forgiveness as opposites. This article summarizes a burgeoning literature indicating that (a) punishment can, in fact, encourage forgiveness and (b) inclusive justice orientations are positively associated with forgiving.

The Measurement of Dispositional Self-Forgiveness

In this chapter, I critique measures of dispositional self-forgiveness. I conclude that existing measures are limited because they are concerned with measuring only one facet of the self-forgiveness construct, specifically, self-regard. In addition, the majority of studies are correlational in nature and focus on relations with other trait-level variables. Relatively few studies test relations between dispositional self-forgiveness and responses to victims in the context of specific transgressions. As such, it is difficult to know how to interpret the existing literature. I therefore identify ways in which researchers could improve upon present measures of dispositional self-forgiveness. I also suggest ways in which researchers could better test how a person with a strong self-forgiving disposition may act in response to specific transgressions.