Peter W. Clinton

Community structure and forest invasion by an exotic herb over 23 years

We studied the invasion of a New Zealand mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) forest by the exotic perennial herb, Hieracium lepidulum. We used data from 250 randomly located permanent plots (400 m2) established in 1970 that sampled 9000 ha of forest. Frequency of H. lepidulum was 11%, 43%, and 57% in 1970, 1985, and 1993, respectively. For each year of measurement, invasion patterns were related to (a) distance to the forest margin as a measure of dispersal limitation, (b) community structure, (c) stem biomass dynamics indicating disturbance history, and (d) environmental characteristics. In 1970, invaded plots had more species and lower potential solar radiation, and they were closer to the forest margin; however, invaded plots were only weakly predicted by these site variables. H. lepidulum also invaded relatively species-rich subplots (0.75 m2) showing that community structure was also significant at a microsite scale. Using the same sets of variables, the ability to predict which ...

Decomposition and nutrient release from radiata pine (Pinus radiata) coarse woody debris

Abstract The dynamics of decomposition of thinning slash and nutrient release were studied in a radiata pine (Pinus radiata D Don) plantation forest in New Zealand. This study examined decomposition of coarse woody debris (CWD) components (log-wood, log-bark, and side branches) originating from stands thinned between 1 and 13 years previously. Changes in component density were used to estimate the decay rates. Both chemical analyses and 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy were conducted to investigate relationships between decomposition and chemical composition. The rate of decomposition was the fastest for log-wood followed by log-bark, which in turn decomposed faster than side-branch material. After 13 years, log-wood, log-bark and side branches lost 59, 55 and 24% of their initial mass, respectively. Single exponential model analysis indicated that the half-life of total thinning slash (sum of log-wood, log-bark and side branches) was 13.25 years. Proximate analyses showed that the faster rate of decomposition of log-wood was mainly due to greater carbohydrate concentration, while greater concentrations of polyphenol and lignin were responsible for the slower decomposition rate of log-bark. The slow rate of decomposition of side branches was due to unfavorable micro-climate (most of the side branches were not in contact with soil even after 9 years of decomposition) as well as greater lignin and polyphenol concentrations. Carbon-13 NMR analysis revealed that during decomposition the relative proportions of O-alkyl and acetal C, which represent carbohydrates, decreased while N-alkyl, aromatic, and phenolic C, which represent tannins and acid insoluble compounds including lignin, increased in all thinning slash components. Net release of nutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) occurred during thinning slash decomposition, in contrast to earlier studies, although the concentrations of most nutrients increased with time. Nutrient release was attributed to the nature of the thinning slash materials and the high proportion of bark material in particular. Although there was a net release, the rate of release of C and the majority of nutrients from thinning slash was slow making it an important C sink and long-term source of nutrients.

Technological options for the management of biosolids.

Background, aim, and scopeLarge quantities of biosolids (sewage sludge), which are produced from municipal wastewater treatment, are ever-increasing because of the commissioning of new treatment plants and continuous upgrades of the existing facilities. A large proportion of biosolids are currently landfilled. With increasing pressure from regulators and the general public, landfilling of biosolids is being phased out in many countries because of potential secondary pollution caused by leachate and the emission of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Biosolids contain nutrients and energy that can be used beneficially. Significant efforts have been made recently to develop new technologies to manage biosolids and make useful products from them. In this paper, we provide a review of the technologies in biosolids management.Materials and methodsA survey of literature was conducted.ResultsAt present, the most common beneficial use of biosolids is agricultural land application because of inherent fertilizer values found in biosolids. Expansion of land application, however, may be limited in the future because of more stringent regulatory requirements and public concern about food chain contamination in some countries. Perceived as a green energy source, the combustion of biosolids has received renewed interest. Anaerobic digestion is generally a more effective method than incineration for energy recovery, and digested biosolids are suitable for further beneficial use through land application. Although conventional incineration systems for biosolid management generally consume more energy than they produce because of the high moisture content in the biosolids, it is expected that more combustion systems, either monocombustion or cocombustion, will be built to cope with the increasing quantity of biosolids.DiscussionUnder the increasingly popular low-carbon economy policy, biosolids may be recognized as a renewable fuel and be eligible for ‘carbon credits’. Because ash can be used to manufacture construction materials, combustion can provide a complete management for biosolids. A number of advanced thermal conversion technologies (e.g., supercritical water oxidation process and pyrolysis) are under development for biosolids management with a goal to generate useful products, such as higher quality fuels and recovery of phosphorus. With an ever-increasing demand for renewable energy, growing bioenergy crops and forests using biosolids as a fertilizer and soil amendment can not only contribute to the low-carbon economy but also maximize the nutrient and carbon value of the biosolids.ConclusionsLand application of biosolids achieves a complete reuse of its nutrients and organic carbon at a relatively low cost. Therefore, land application should become a preferred management option where there is available land, the quality of biosolids meet regulatory requirements, and it is socially acceptable. Intensive energy cropping and forest production using biosolids can help us meet the ever-increasing demand for renewable energy, which can eliminate the contamination potential for food sources, a common social concern about land application of biosolids. In recent years, increasing numbers of national and local governments have adopted more stringent regulations toward biosolid management. Under such a political climate, biosolids producers will have to develop multireuse strategies for biosolids to avoid being caught because a single route management practice might be under pressure at a short notice. Conventional incineration systems for biosolids management generally consume more energy than they produce and, although by-products may be used in manufacturing, this process cannot be regarded as a beneficial use of biosolids. However, biosolids are likely to become a source of renewable energy and produce ‘carbon credits’ under the increasingly popular, low-carbon economy policy.Recommendations and perspectivesTo manage biosolids in a sustainable manner, there is a need for further research in the following areas: achieving a higher degree of public understanding and acceptance for the beneficial use of biosolids, developing cost-efficient and effective thermal conversions for direct energy recovery from biosolids, advancing technology for phosphorus recovery, and selecting or breeding crops for efficient biofuel production.

Factors impacting on pharmaceutical leaching following sewage application to land.

Sewage effluent application to land is a treatment technology that requires appropriate consideration of various design factors. Soil type, level of sewage pre-treatment and irrigation rate were assessed for their influence on the success of soil treatment in removing pharmaceuticals remaining after conventional sewage treatment. A large scale experimental site was built to assess treatment performance in a realistic environment. Of the factors investigated, soil type had the biggest impact on treatment performance. In particular, carbamazepine was very efficiently removed (>99%) when irrigated onto a volcanic sandy loam soil. This was in contrast to irrigation onto a sandy soil where no carbamazepine removal occurred after irrigation. Differences were likely caused by the presence of allophane in the volcanic soil which is able to accumulate a high level of organic matter. Carbamazepine apparent adsorption distribution coefficients (K(d)) for both soils when irrigated with treated sewage effluent were determined as 25 L kg(-1) for the volcanic soil and 0.08 L kg(-1) for the sandy soil. Overall, a volcanic soil was reasonably efficient in removing carbamazepine while soil type was not a major factor for caffeine removal. Removal of caffeine, however, was more efficient when a partially treated rather than fully treated effluent was applied. Based on the investigated pharmaceuticals and given an appropriate design, effluent irrigation onto land, in conjunction with conventional sewage treatment may be considered a beneficial treatment for pharmaceutical removal.

Decomposition and nutrient dynamics of green and freshly fallen radiata pine (Pinus radiata) needles

Thinning and pruning operations in radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantation forests result in the addition of large amounts of green needles to the forest floor. The decomposition of green and freshly fallen radiata pine needles and the effects of adding green needles to freshly fallen needles were examined in a microcosm experiment. Green needles lost 72% of the original mass after 10 months, compared with 27% for freshly fallen needles. The corresponding mass losses for 1:1 ratios of green and freshly fallen needles were 55% when mixed and 53% when layered. Nutrient concentrations generally increased during decomposition while total amounts of nutrients decreased with time. Decomposition was primarily influenced by needle lignin and N content, and by the holocellulose to lignocellulose quotient (HLQ). The results of this study indicate that addition of green needles does not significantly affect the decomposition of freshly fallen needles. This outcome was attributed to substrate preference by decomposer microorganisms. It is, therefore, concluded that forest management practices (thinning, pruning and harvesting) which result in significant inputs of carbohydrates and nutrients in the form of green needles will have little impact on decomposition of existing forest floor materials.

Effect of nitrogen and waterlogging on denitrifier gene abundance, community structure and activity in the rhizosphere of wheat

Microbial denitrification plays a key role in determining the availability of soil nitrogen (N) to plants. However, factors influencing the structure and function of denitrifier communities in the rhizosphere remain unclear. Waterlogging can result in root anoxia and increased denitrification, leading to significant N loss from soil and potential nitrous oxide (N(2)O) emissions. This study investigated denitrifier gene abundance, community structure and activity in the rhizosphere of wheat in response to anoxia and N limitation. Denitrifier community structure in the rhizosphere differed from that in bulk soil, and denitrifier gene copy numbers (nirS, nirK, nosZ) and potential denitrification activity were greater in the rhizosphere. Anoxia and N limitation, and in particular a combination of both, reduced the magnitude of this effect on gene abundance (in particular nirS) and activity, with N limitation having greater impact than waterlogging in rhizosphere soil, in contrast to bulk soil where the impact of waterlogging was greater. Increased N supply to anoxic plants improved plant health and increased rhizosphere soil pH, which resulted in enhanced reduction of N(2)O. Both anoxia and N limitation significantly influenced the structure and function of denitrifier communities in the rhizosphere, with reduced root-derived carbon postulated to play an important role.

The influence of nitrogen and phosphorus supply and genotype on mesophyll conductance limitations to photosynthesis in Pinus radiata

Mesophyll conductance, g(m), may pose significant limitations to photosynthesis and may be differentially affected by nutrition and genotype in Pinus radiata D. Don. Simultaneous measurements of gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence were made to determine g(m), using the constant J method (Harley, P.C., F. Loreto, G. Di Marco and T.D. Sharkey. 1992. Theoretical considerations when estimating the mesophyll conductance to CO(2) flux by analysis of the response of photosynthesis to CO(2). Plant Physiol. 98:1429-1436), in a fast- and a slow-growing clone of P. radiata grown in a greenhouse with a factorial combination of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) supply. Values of g(m) increased linearly with the rate of photosynthesis at saturating irradiance and ambient CO(2) concentration, A(sat) (g(m) = 0.020A(sat), r(2) = 0.25, P < 0.001) and with stomatal conductance to CO(2) transfer, g(s) (g(m) = 1.16g(s), r(2) = 0.14, P < 0.001). Values of g(m) were greater than those of stomatal conductance, g(s), and the ratio (g(m)/g(s)) was not influenced by single or combined N and P additions or clone with a mean (+/-SE) value of 1.22 +/- 0.06. Relative limitations to mesophyll conductance, L(m) (16%) to photosynthesis, were generally greater than those imposed by stomata, L(s) (13%). The mean (+/-SE) CO(2) concentration in the intercellular air spaces (C(i)) was 53 +/- 3 mumol mol(-1) lower than that in the atmosphere (C(a)). Mean (+/-SE) CO(2) concentration in the chloroplasts (C(c)) was 48 +/- 2 mumol mol(-1) lower than C(i). Values of L(s), L(m) and CO(2) diffusion gradients posed by g(s) (C(a) - C(i)) and g(m) (C(i) - C(c)) did not significantly differ with nutrient supply or clone. Mean values of V(cmax) and J(max) calculated on a C(c) basis were 15.4% and 3.1% greater than those calculated on a C(i) basis, which translated into different slopes of the J(max)/V(cmax) relationship (C(c) basis: J(max) = 2.11V(cmax), r(2) = 0.88, P < 0.001; C(i) basis: J(max) = 2.43V(cmax), r(2) = 0.86, P < 0.001). These results will be useful for correcting estimates of V(cmax) and J(max) used to characterize the biochemical properties of photosynthesis for P. radiata.

Biomass and morphology of Pinus radiata coarse root components in a sub-humid temperate silvopastoral system

Abstract Understanding the dynamics and distribution of root system components and how they are affected by pasture–tree interactions in silvopastoral systems are important for better management of agroforestry systems. The biomass and morphology of coarse root components were studied for 3- and 4-year-old Pinus radiata clonal and seedling trees growing with or without lucerne (Medicago sativa). Root:shoot ratio and lateral and vertical root biomass were greater by 1.5, 2.3 and 6.1 times, respectively, in clonal than in seedling trees, particularly in the no understory treatment compared to the lucerne treatment. Fractional allocation of root biomass to lateral and vertical roots was higher in clonal than in seedling trees by 1.1 and 2.6 times, respectively, while allocation to the root core was 1.4 times higher in the seedlings than the clone. Competition from lucerne reduced fractional allocation of root biomass to lateral roots by 40% in the seedling tree in 1993 and increased allocation to the root core. Competition was more intense at age 3 than at 4 years. No competition effect on lateral roots was observed with the clonal trees. Radiata pine root systems showed strong morphological plasticity to respond to changing soil conditions. Ripping coupled with thinning increased lateral root growth in the ripped zone so that by age 4 years 60% of lateral roots was in this zone. This was probably due to alterations in soil structure and reduced competition, particularly for moisture. Similarly higher soil moisture led to more lateral root biomass growth in the no understory compared to the lucerne treatment and on the south side of the trees compared to the north side. These results illustrated that selection of genotypes and planting material as well as management techniques such as soil cultivation, selection and placement of pasture understory, and thinning can all be used to manipulate rooting patterns and tree productivity in agroforestry systems. Furthermore, selection of planting material can also be used to reduce tree toppling in radiata pine.

The influence of N and P supply and genotype on carbon flux and partitioning in potted Pinus radiata plants

Carbon (C) flux and partitioning responses of Pinus radiata (D. Don) clones to a factorial combination of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) supply were estimated in small trees growing in a greenhouse over 44 weeks. Our objective was to use a C budget approach at the plant level to examine how a factorial combination of N and P additions and genotype modify gross primary production (GPP), net primary production (NPP), absolute C fluxes apportioned to aboveground net primary production (ANPP), aboveground plant respiration (APR), total belowground carbon flux (TBCF) and the partitioning of GPP to ANPP, APR and TBCF. Single N or P additions increased plant NPP and GPP similarly, but their combined effects exceeded those of their individual contributions. Nitrogen and to a lesser extent P additions enhanced carbon-use efficiency (CUE, NPP:GPP) and C partitioning to ANPP at the expense of TBCF. The fraction of GPP partitioned to APR was invariant to N or P additions. The ratio of soil respiration (FS) to TBCF was significantly greater in the low-N low-P addition treatment (61%) than in those treatments with single or combined N and P additions (49%). The slowest growing clone partitioned a significantly smaller fraction of GPP to ANPP (29%) than one of the faster-growing genotypes (33%). This research provides insight into how N and P regulate the C fluxes and partitioning in individual plants. Our results contribute to explaining clonal variation in aboveground growth rates and suggest that greater gains in CUE and partitioning to ANPP occur with addition of N rather than P supply.

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF EPIGEOUS FUNGAL SPOROCARPS GROWING ON DIFFERENT SUBSTRATES IN A NEW ZEALAND MOUNTAIN BEECH FOREST

Abstract Fungal sporocarps of selected species were collected from two substrates (standing dead spars and fallen logs, and the forest floor) in mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) forest. Sporocarp C, N, P, Ca, K, Mg, Si, Al, andNa concentrations were determined. There was considerable variation in mineral element concentrations between species but this variation did not strongly relate to substrate, e.g., sporocarp N concentrations ranged from 12.1 mg g‐1 for Daldinia concentrica to 55.1 mg g‐1 for Pluteus cf. readii. Both species were found on decaying woody sustrates which had a mean N concentration of 1.5 mg g‐1. Except for Ca, nutrient concentrations were much higher in sporocarps than in substrates upon which they occurred. The high nutrient concentrations of sporocarps, particularly those found on standing dead spars and fallen logs, relative to their associated substrate, have important implications for ecosystem nutrient cycling.