Philip Dearden

Non-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation: A conceptual framework

Abstract Recreational non-consumptive use of wildlife has been attracting increasing numbers of people and generating growing economic benefits from tourism activity. More importantly this type of wildlife interaction has potential benefits to conservation from the long-term effect of changing attitudes towards wild animals and natural habitats. It does not, however, fit well into the existing wildlife management paradigm due to the nature of the final product, a recreation experience. This paper aims to provide an integrated framework that illustrates the major components of non-consumptive wildlife recreation and links between research areas in ecology, animal behaviour, recreation, tourism and existing wildlife management institutions. The fundamental purpose of this paper is to cast wildlife conservation in a new light that recognizes the need to formulate management plans in both a social and biological context.

Rethinking protected area categories and the new paradigm

SUMMARY The World Conservation Union (IUCN) plays a global leadership role in defining different types of protected areas, and influencing how protected area systems develop and are managed. Following the 1992 World ParksCongress,anewsystemofcategorizingprotected areas was developed. New categories were introduced, including categories that allowed resource extraction. Since that time there has been rapid growth in the global numbers and size of protected areas, with most growth being shown in the new categories. Furthermore, the IUCN has heralded a ‘new paradigm’ of protected areas, which became the main focus of the 2003 World Parks Congress. The paradigm focuses on benefits to local people to alleviate poverty, reengineering protected areas professionals, and an emphasis on the interaction between humans and nature through a focus on the new IUCN protected area categories.The purpose of this paper is to examine critically the implications of the new categories and paradigmshiftinlightofthemainpurposeofprotected areas, to protect wild biodiversity. Wild biodiversity will not be well served by adoption of this new paradigm, which will devalue conservation biology, undermine the creation of more strictly protected reserves, inflate the amount of area in reserves and place people atthecentreoftheprotectedareaagendaattheexpense ofwildbiodiversity.OnlyIUCNcategoriesI−IVshould be recognized as protected areas. The new categories, namely culturally modified landscapes (V) and managed resource areas (VI), should be reclassified as sustainable development areas. To do so would better serve both the protection of wild biodiversity and those seekingtomeethumanneedsonhumanizedlandscapes where sustainable development is practised.

Ecotourism versus tourism in a Thai national park

Abstract Although considered distinct, ecotourists have been compared rarely with other tourist types at the same site and time. Moreover, ecotourism definitions imply support for conservation. This study differentiates ecotourists from other tourist types, and compares their financial support for conservation, sociodemographic characteristics, and recreation substitutability for nature trek activities. Based on a questionnaire survey of 857 respondents at Doi Inthanon National Park, Thailand, five main tourist types were identified. Ecotourists contributed more to conservation than other types, but primarily in their home countries. They were older and more educated than other tourist types. Substitutability did not differ among different types.

Recreational use, valuation, and management of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) on Canada's Pacific coast

The management of many ocean wildlife species is left in an institutional void, yet certain species command considerable public attention and have burgeoning management problems. In this paper the non-consumptive recreational use of Killer Whales ( Orcinus orca ) on Canadas Pacific Ocean coast is used as an example of management difficulties that are associated with oceanic species. Problems associated with jurisdiction and institutional arrangements are coupled to significant levels of biological uncertainty and restricted management options, as well as to management concerns associated with the human domain. The case is conceptualized as an interaction between the human and more general ecological spheres, mediated by the history of the relationship between humans and the species in question. Two routes to regulation are presented, dealing respectively with the human and ecological aspects. Of particular significance is the idea that both types of information are necessary to maximize utility to both the human user and the Whales. Results from an ongoing study of recreational use are presented to indicate some of the variables that have emerged. These are to be interpreted within current resource management infrastructure to create a tenuous situation. The unfortunate logic that results from this study is that if Killer Whales (a high-profile species) in Canada (a well-endowed nation) have not warranted more substantial protection, then the outlook for less well-known marine species in areas of the world where resource management priorities involve more direct survival concerns, is not optimistic.

The shark watching industry and its potential contribution to shark conservation.

Over 100 million sharks are killed annually, putting enormous pressure on sharkpopulations worldwide. Sharks have traditionally been considered a detriment tocoastal tourism, but since the early 1990s, shifts in attitudes amongst divers haveled to growth in the popularity of shark watching as a tourist activity. An estimated500,000 divers a year find, photograph, feed, and swim with sharks, contributingmillions of dollars to local and regional economies. This paper examines whetherthe economic value attached to shark watching can provide enough incentive toreduce consumptive exploitation levels. Although the economic value attached toshark watching has led to greater protection of sharks in some locations, analysisof available data suggests that incentives do not appear large enough to encouragea significant reduction in fishing pressure appropriate to the scale of threat facingsharks. Growth of the shark watching industry is constrained by a number offactors including perceived risks and benefits, declining shark populations, and gov-ernment regulations. However, conservation strategies for sharks involving tourismcan be envisaged, involving varying levels of non-consumptive and consumptiveuses of sharks. Three kinds of interaction between the non-consumptive and con-sumptive use of sharks are outlined along with implications for shark conservation.Keywords: conservation, ecotourism, marine recreation, scuba, sharks

Factors influencing landscape preferences: An empirical investigation

Abstract This paper describes an empirical experiment undertaken to examine the influence of four sorts of variables on landscape preferences, influence of training in the planning profession, environmental awareness, familiarity according to general landscape type, and various socio-economic factors. The sample consisted of 30 land-use planners, 30 members of an active environmental lobby group, the Sierra Club, and 30 members of the general public with no affiliations to environmental interest groups. The respondents were asked to Q-sort 30 colour photographs depicting three land-use strata; peri-urban, rural and wilderness. The results indicate no bias according to professional training in planning, but a highly significant difference between the Sierra Club and the other groups, relating largely to the evaluation of wilderness scenes. Familiarity with general landscape types appears to have a positive correlation with landscape preferences. For example, respondents who have occupied more natural, low-density housing environments for most of their adult lives feel more positively about rural and wilderness scenes than respondents from high-density housing environments. The influence of wildernesscontact experience on landscape preferences is also examined. None of the socio-economic variables tested — sex, age, income, education and occupation — demonstrate significant relationships with the Q-sort. Respondents were also asked to rank several factors as to their perceived importance on their landscape preferences. The first four, past landscape experience, travel, present living environment and recreational activities, would all seem to provide support for the influence of familiarity on landscape preferences.

Implications for coral reef conservation of diver specialization.

One activity with potential to provide a direct incentive for reef conservation is scuba diving. In the absence of effective management, diving can also have negative impacts. This study shows how an understanding of diver specialization can be used to help manage diving and increase its effectiveness as an incentive-driven conservation activity. Surveys were used to assess motivations, satisfactions and dive history of divers in Phuket (Thailand) and categorize divers by degree of specialization. Highly specialized divers were more likely to be on a live-aboard trip than less specialized divers and placed greater importance on the characteristics of the dive itself rather than the trip. Less specialized divers put more emphasis on non-dive characteristics. Satisfaction levels differed significantly among specialization groups in terms of overall satisfaction with the dive experience, satisfactions compared with motivations and satisfactions with specific trip characteristics. Overall there was a decline in satisfaction levels with increasing specialization. These finding are compared to a wildlife tourism model that links impacts with client characteristics and suggests a displacement of specialists by generalists and changes in the limits of acceptable change (LAC) over time. The dive data supported this progression leading to increased industry competition and reduced opportunities to sustain a broad-based dive industry that will act as an incentive-driven mechanism for reef conservation. Specific actions related to reef access and zoning according to a diver opportunity spectrum (DOS), establishing LAC and monitoring programmes, enforcing safety and environmental regulations are suggested to promote a more sustainable approach to dive management. Social science insights can be used to aid reef management strategies and increase the potential for diving to contribute towards reef conservation.

Perceptions of Diving Impacts and Implications for Reef Conservation

SCUBA diving can contribute to both coral reef degradation and conservation. Divers’ perceptions of these possible impacts were studied in Phuket, Thailand. The most endorsed impact of diving was a positive one: the educational impact on the divers. Impact perceptions changed after the dive. Perceptions of anchor damage and garbage disposal as negative impacts fell markedly. Following the trip liveaboard divers were more likely than day divers to see the impact of diving as positive. Almost 30% of divers witnessed perceived negative impacts on the reef by their dive group. Divers who saw damage were more likely to feel that diving has a negative impact on the reef than divers who did not see impacts. They were also more likely to take part in a reef conservation project. The results reinforce the potential for diving to be a positive force for reef conservation but indicate the need for greater investment in diver education.

Decision-Making Arrangements in Community-Based Watershed Management in Northern Thailand

This article examines four case studies of community - based watershed management with emphasis on their operational decision - making arrangements. All the case studies established community - based regimes as a result of declining resource abundance, but differ in their operational rules, administration, effectiveness, and satisfaction among stakeholders. Even though legally the watersheds are state property, 73% of the villagers consider them communal property. Almost all villagers are aware of the community rules governing use, with 88% voluntarily accepting the rules and over 90% thinking that they are appropriate. Rule violation by members is seen as the greatest threat to continued existence in three of the communities. The communities are compared against seven design principles associated with more robust institutional characteristics for common property resources. In general, as anticipated, smaller watersheds close to the communities with clearly demarcated boundaries and fewer users and with h...

Fragmentation and wildlife in montane evergreen forests, northern Thailand

Montane evergreen forests in northern Thailand are high in biodiversity and becoming increasingly fragmented. We studied fragmentation and wildlife response in two contiguous wildlife sanctuaries. Om Koi still maintained relatively large patches (>400 ha) with some connectivity while Mae Tuen was comprised mainly of small and isolated patches (<100 ha). Mae Tuen lost 2640 ha of montane evergreen forest between 1954 and 1996 compared to a loss of 888 ha in Om Koi. We compared the wildlife between four forest patches in Mae Tuen, with four in Om Koi finding nine mammals and 89 birds in Mae Tuen and 19 mammals and 119 birds in Om Koi. Om Koi still supports populations of large mammals and frugivorous birds extirpated in Mae Tuen. The results document the high rate of fragmentation in protected areas that often interact synergistically with other pressures to reduce biodiversity.