Philip J. Nyhus

Bearing the costs of human-wildlife conflict: The challenges of compensation schemes

INTRODUCTION As the cases in this volume vividly illustrate, human conflict with wildlife is a significant – and growing – conservation problem around the world. The risk of wildlife damage to crops, livestock and human lives provides incentives for rural residents to kill wildlife and to reduce the quantity and quality of habitat on private and communal lands. Recognition among conservationists that the cost of conserving large and sometimes dangerous animals is often borne disproportionately by farmers and others living closest to wildlife has spawned strategies to reduce this imbalance. One popular response is to compensate rural residents for the costs of wildlife damage. By spreading the economic burden and moderating the financial risks to people who coexist with wildlife, conservationists hope to reduce the negative consequences of human–wildlife conflict. Few systematic efforts have been made to evaluate the efficacy of these programmes or the best way to implement and manage these schemes for endangered species (Sillero-Zubiri and Laurenson 2001). In this chapter, we build on our recent study (Nyhus et al . 2003) which asked whether compensation programmes really help endangered species in conflict with humans. We surveyed 23 international experts in large mammal conservation to learn about common pitfalls associated with running a compensation programme and the resources that managers need to succeed. Here, we also draw on additional published studies and reviews to explore the role of compensation in resolving conflicts between people and wildlife.

Characterizing human-tiger conflict in Sumatra, Indonesia: implications for conservation

Human-tiger conflict occurs in Indonesia but there is little recent information about the scope of the problem, and adequate policies are not in place to address the conflict. Published and unpublished reports of conflict between Sumatran tigers Panthera tigris sumatrae , people and their livestock were collected and analysed to characterize the extent, distribution and impact of human-tiger conflict on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. Reportedly, between 1978 and 1997, tigers killed 146 people and injured 30, and killed at least 870 livestock. Conflict was less common in protected areas and more common in intermediate disturbance areas such as multiple-use forests where tigers and people coexist. In Indonesia there is a need to develop a definition of problem tigers, a database to track conflicts, and a process to respond immediately to conflicts when they occur. Without a better understanding of human-tiger conflict and a concerted effort to proactively address the problem, future landscape-level tiger conservation and management efforts may be jeopardized.

Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis : field survey of priority tiger reserves

This paper describes results of a Sino-American field survey seeking evidence of South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis in the wild. In 2001 and 2002 field surveys were conducted in eight reserves in five provinces identified by government authorities as habitat most likely to contain tigers. The surveys evaluated and documented evidence for the presence of tigers, tiger prey and habitat disturbance. Approximately 290 km of mountain trails were evaluated. Infrared remote cameras set up in two reserves captured 400 trap days of data. Thirty formal and numerous informal interviews were conducted with villagers to document wildlife knowledge, livestock management practices, and local land and resource use. We found no evidence of wild South China tigers, few prey species, and no livestock depredation by tigers reported in the last 10 years. Forest areas designated as tiger reserves, averaging about 100 km 2 in size, are too small to support even a few tigers because commercial tree farms and other habitat conversion is common, and people and their livestock dominate these fragments. While our survey may not have been exhaustive, and there may be a single tiger or a few isolated tigers still remaining at sites we missed, our results strongly indicate that no remaining viable populations of South China tigers occur within its historical range. We conclude that continued field efforts are needed to ascertain whether any wild tigers may yet persist, concurrent with the need to consider options for the eventual recovery and restoration of wild tiger populations from existing captive populations.

Wildlife knowledge among migrants in southern Sumatra, Indonesia: implications for conservation

SUMMARY The value of traditional ecological knowledge for biodiversity research and conservation is widely recognized. The value of wildlife knowledge provided by recent migrants is less clear. Photographs of 10 mammal species were shown to 622 individuals in communities near Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra, Indonesia, to assess wildlife knowledge among recent migrants and to identify socio-economic variables that can be used to identify more knowledgeable informants. Knowledge scores were categorized by taxonomic family, genus and species. Large, charismatic and abundant animals were identified more frequently than smaller and more secretive animals. Higher knowledge scores were significantly associated with males, higher educational attainment and past experience with these animals. Number of years respondents had lived in the area and respondent age were also good predictors of higher scores. The characteristics of animals that were likely to be identified more accurately were assessed. Generic terms used to describe animals can confound individual responses. Biodiversity research, conservation and education programmes frequently rely on ‘local’ knowledge to inform management and policy. This information can be a valuable addition to field-based efforts to identify the distribution and abundance of rare endangered species. With more and more migrants living near the world’s wildlife protected areas, care must be taken to understand how human demographic shifts may affect such studies.

A Role for Natural Resource Social Science in Biodiversity Risk Assessment

Biologists have made considerable progress in developing realistic simulation models to predict extinction risks for threatened species. Social scientists have to date had a more limited role in these efforts. This limited involvement comes despite the growing acknowledgment by population biologists and simulation modelers thatthis additional input is necessary for these models to accurately reflect the impact of humans and human-dominated landscapes on wildlife populations. We argue that collaborations among social and biological scientists can provide unparalleled opportunities to develop new conceptual and simulation tools for biodiversity risk assessment. One challenge is that while the value of interdisciplinary research is widely recognized, interdisciplinary teamwork is difficult to achieve. We suggest strategies to strengthen such cross-disciplinary collaboration, including efforts to link diverse models and to build networks of researchers who have not historically collaborated.We conclude with questions intended to guide further discussions about how to integrate social science information into biodiversity risk assessments in the future.

Metamodels for Transdisciplinary Analysis of Wildlife Population Dynamics

Wildlife population models have been criticized for their narrow disciplinary perspective when analyzing complexity in coupled biological – physical – human systems. We describe a “metamodel” approach to species risk assessment when diverse threats act at different spatiotemporal scales, interact in non-linear ways, and are addressed by distinct disciplines. A metamodel links discrete, individual models that depict components of a complex system, governing the flow of information among models and the sequence of simulated events. Each model simulates processes specific to its disciplinary realm while being informed of changes in other metamodel components by accessing common descriptors of the system, populations, and individuals. Interactions among models are revealed as emergent properties of the system. We introduce a new metamodel platform, both to further explain key elements of the metamodel approach and as an example that we hope will facilitate the development of other platforms for implementing metamodels in population biology, species risk assessments, and conservation planning. We present two examples – one exploring the interactions of dispersal in metapopulations and the spread of infectious disease, the other examining predator-prey dynamics – to illustrate how metamodels can reveal complex processes and unexpected patterns when population dynamics are linked to additional extrinsic factors. Metamodels provide a flexible, extensible method for expanding population viability analyses beyond models of isolated population demographics into more complete representations of the external and intrinsic threats that must be understood and managed for species conservation.

Poaching and Poisoning of Tigers in Sumatra for the Domestic Market

Publisher Summary There is a dimension of the illegal trade in tigers and tiger parts that has been around much longer, but often receives much less attention: the harvesting, trade, and consumption of tigers and tiger derivatives for domestic markets. This chapter presents the results of various studies, and by reviewing and comparing the results to other studies also undertaken in Sumatra, poaching of tigers in Sumatra is demonstrated. The data were verified by cross-checking between independent informants and intelligence networks. The two primary methods reported were the use of snares made from metal cables 0.5 cm in diameter and poison applied to dead dogs, chickens, or livestock. Informants identified three distinct groups of poachers: professionals, “amateur” opportunists, and members of the military and police. Professional poachers rely on stealth, need time to set multiple snares, and thus are probably more likely responsible for tiger losses inside core areas of parks. The result of the study reveals several important trends, some of which have not been addressed in Indonesia before, and confirms trends identified by others that remain relevant today. The international trade in tigers absolutely must be shut down, but this study is a potent reminder that ultimately, it is the local trade that must also be controlled for tigers to survive.

Panthera tigris vs homo sapiens : Conflict, Coexistence, or Extinction

Publisher Summary Tiger–human conflict is important for many reasons, not least of which is that it has defined history and will define the future with this species. This chapter frames the contemporary social and biological reality across much of the tigers range. It also illustrates the ultimate challenge of managing landscapes where people and tigers intersect. Understanding the cause of and solution to this conflict, including the typical behavior of tigers and people, is essential to understanding how to save wild tigers. Tigers no longer kill as many people or livestock as they once did when the world had more tigers and fewer people. But tiger attacks are visceral, frightening, and tragic for people in a way that habitat degradation and poaching are not. Conflict motivates those living near wild tigers to kill them, the rest to fear them, and ultimately leads to intense political pressure to eliminate the problem. Reports suggest that conflict between tigers and people was significant and widespread in most areas where people and tigers coexisted. Common hypotheses suggests to explain why tigers attack people and livestock include: depletion of prey or inability to hunt prey effectively, hunger, old age, illness or injury, learned behavior from individual experience or from parents, older former residents that are no longer able defend a home range, and lack of aversion due to limited or ineffective retaliation.

Thirteen Thousand and Counting: How Growing Captive Tiger Populations Threaten Wild Tigers

Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the challenges faced by wild tiger populations and the various strategies used by tiger conservationists to study and conserve the critically endangered cats in nature. Three observations are shown. First, over the past 20 years, despite tremendous energy and efforts, unprecedented funding, and innovative programs, wild tiger populations everywhere, except in Russia, have declined. In some locations, these losses were dramatic. Second, managing putative tiger subspecies is a significant challenge for zoos due to limited space, and successful reintroduction protocols for captive-reared tigers have yet to be established. Third, tigers are orange with black stripes. This chapter proposes taxonomy of captive tiger owners and discusses the history and growth of captive tiger ownership, with particular emphasis in the United States. It identifies the most important “obvious and acute problems” associated with captive tigers; and introduces a new class of “subtle and chronic” problems associated with captive tigers. The first systematic estimate of the global captive tiger population is presented. Finally, this chapter concludes with a brief discussion of why one believes that anyone who cares about tigers needs to confront the growth, and economic and political influence, of irresponsible tiger ownership.Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the challenges faced by wild tiger populations and the various strategies used by tiger conservationists to study and conserve the critically endangered cats in nature. Three observations are shown. First, over the past 20 years, despite tremendous energy and efforts, unprecedented funding, and innovative programs, wild tiger populations everywhere, except in Russia, have declined. In some locations, these losses were dramatic. Second, managing putative tiger subspecies is a significant challenge for zoos due to limited space, and successful reintroduction protocols for captive-reared tigers have yet to be established. Third, tigers are orange with black stripes. This chapter proposes taxonomy of captive tiger owners and discusses the history and growth of captive tiger ownership, with particular emphasis in the United States. It identifies the most important “obvious and acute problems” associated with captive tigers; and introduces a new class of “subtle and chronic” problems associated with captive tigers. The first systematic estimate of the global captive tiger population is presented. Finally, this chapter concludes with a brief discussion of why one believes that anyone who cares about tigers needs to confront the growth, and economic and political influence, of irresponsible tiger ownership.

Global patterns and trends in human-wildlife conflict compensation

Human-wildlife conflict is a major conservation challenge, and compensation for wildlife damage is a widely used economic tool to mitigate this conflict. The effectiveness of this management tool is widely debated. The relative importance of factors associated with compensation success is unclear, and little is known about global geographic or taxonomic differences in the application of compensation programs. We reviewed research on wildlife-damage compensation to determine geographic and taxonomic gaps, analyze patterns of positive and negative comments related to compensation, and assess the relative magnitude of global compensation payments. We analyzed 288 publications referencing wildlife compensation and identified 138 unique compensation programs. These publications reported US