Philip J. Rodacy

Training and deployment of honeybees to detect explosives and other agents of harm

Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has been collaborating with the University of Montanas (UM) engineered honeybee colony research under DARPAs Controlled Biological and Biomimetric Systems (CBBS) program. Prior work has shown that the monitoring of contaminants that are returned to a hive by honeybees (Apis mellifera) provides a rapid, inexpensive method to assess chemical distributions and environmental impacts. Members from a single colony make many tens of thousands of foraging trips per day over areas as large as 2 km2. During these foraging trips, the insects are in direct contact with most environmental media (air, water, plants, and soil) and, in the process, encounter contaminants in gaseous, liquid and particulate form. These contaminants are carried back to the hive where analysis can be conveniently conducted. Three decades of work by UM and other investigators has demonstrated that honeybees can effectively and rapidly screen large areas for the presence of a wide array of chemical contaminants and for the effects of exposures to these chemicals. Recently, UM has been exploring how bee-based environmental measurements can be used to quantify risks to humans or ecosystems. The current DARPA program extends this work to the training of honeybees to actively search for contaminants such as the explosive residue being released by buried landmines. UM developed the methods to train bees to detect explosives and chemical agent surrogates. Sandia provided the explosives expertise, test facilities, electronics support, and state-of-the-art analytical instrumentation. We will present an overview of the training procedures, test parameters employed, and a summary of the results of field trials that were performed in Montana and at DARPA field trials in San Antonio, TX. Data showing the detection limits of the insects will be included.

Chemical sensing system for classification of mine-like objects by explosives detection

Sandia National Laboratories has conducted research in chemical sensing and analysis of explosives for many years. Recently, that experience has been directed towards detecting mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) by sensing the low-level explosive signatures associated with these objects. Our focus has been on the classification of UXO in shallow water and anti-personnel/anti tank mines on land. The objective of this work is to develop a field portable chemical sensing system which can be used to examine mine-like objects (MLO) to determine whether there are explosive molecules associated with the MLO. Two sampling subsystems have been designed, one for water collection and one for soil/vapor sampling. The water sampler utilizes a flow-through chemical adsorbent canister to extract and concentrate the explosive molecules. Explosive molecules are thermally desorbed from the concentrator and trapped in a focusing stage for rapid desorption into an ion-mobility spectrometer (IMS). We will describe a prototype system which consists of a sampler, concentrator-focuser, and detector. The soil sampler employs a light-weight probe for extracting and concentrating explosive vapor from the soil in the vicinity of an MLO. The chemical sensing system is capable of sub-part-per-billion detection of TNT and related explosive munition compounds. We will present the results of field and laboratory tests on buried landmines, which demonstrate our ability to detect the explosive signatures associated with these objects.

Environmental Impact to the Chemical Signature Emanating from Buried Unexploded Ordinance

Abstract : Detecting the presence of buried unexploded ordnance (UXO) using chemical vapors derived from the main charge explosive has been considered possible with advances in sensitivity and selectivity of emerging chemical sensing technologies. Understanding the environmental impacts to this chemical signature is critical, as environmental factors have a dramatic effect on the source release, transport, phase transfers and degradation in soil systems. This project established several tasks to evaluate the environmental impact to the chemical signature from buried UXO. These tasks included simulation model development and utilization to evaluate the interdependent physico-chemical transport phenomena in near surface soils, fundamental property measurement for those parameters needed in the simulation model that had insufficient or poor quality data, and laboratory-scale experiments that produced data for comparison to simulation model results. This project also sponsored work to produce data on the chemical release characteristics of a small subset of ordnance and UXO, and to determine the chemical residues in the field adjacent to actual UXO. This work has resulted in the development of a simulation model, T2TNT, which incorporates the soil chemodynamic processes most important to near surface soil transport of chemical residues from buried UXO. Measurements were made of the temperature dependent water solubility of TNT and DNT, soil-liquid partition coefficient for DNT, and the soil-vapor partitioning coefficient as a function of soil moisture content for TNT and DNT. Comparison of T2TNT simulation results to laboratory-scale vapor flux experiments simulating a buried source release were excellent. UXO source release tests showed that prior to firing, ordnance contained a sufficient chemical reservoir for release into the soil. However, after firing and recovery (now as an UXO), the ordnance chemical flux was insufficient to overcome biochemical degradation rates.

Explosive ordnance detection in land and water environments with solid phase extraction/ion mobility spectrometry

The qualitative and quantitative determination of nitroaromatic compounds such as trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene (DNT) in water and soil has applications to environmental remediation and the detection of buried military ordnance. Recent results of laboratory and field test have shown that trace level concentrations of these compounds can be detected in water, soil, and solid gas samples taken from the vicinity of submerged or buried ordnance using specialized sampling and signal enhancement techniques. Solid phase micro-extraction methods have been combined with Ion Mobility Spectroscopy to provide rapid, sub-parts-per-billion analysis of these compounds. In this paper, we will describe the gas. These sampling systems, when combined with field-portable IMS, are being developed as a means of classifying buried or submerged objects as explosive ordnance.

Chemical Sensing of Explosive Targets in the Bedford Basin, Halifax, Nova Scotia

Sandia National Laboratories has conducted research in chemical sensing and analysis of explosives for many years. Recently, our focus has been on the classification of unexploded ordnance (UXO) in shallow water, unearthed mortar rounds and shells, and anti-personnel/anti tank mines on land by sensing the low-level explosive signatures associated with these objects. The objective of this work is to develop a field portable chemical sensing system that can be used to examine mine-like objects (MLO) and UXO to determine whether there are traces of explosives associated with these objects. A sampling system that can extract explosives from water has been designed and demonstrated previously. This sampler utilizes a flow-through chamber that contains a solid phase microextraction (SPME) fiber to extract and concentrate the explosive molecules. Explosive molecules are then thermally desorbed from the concentrator for rapid desorption into an ion-mobility spectrometer (IMS) for identification. Three variations of this sampling system were evaluated during the Halifax field tests. This chemical sensing system is capable of sub-part-per-billion detection of TNT and related explosive compounds. This paper will describe a demonstration of this system performed in Bedford Basin, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1 Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000

Field Test Kit for Gun Residue Detection

One of the major needs of the law enforcement field is a product that quickly, accurately, and inexpensively identifies whether a person has recently fired a gun--even if the suspect has attempted to wash the traces of gunpowder off. The Field Test Kit for Gunshot Residue Identification based on Sandia National Laboratories technology works with a wide variety of handguns and other weaponry using gunpowder. There are several organic chemicals in small arms propellants such as nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, dinitrotoluene, and nitrites left behind after the firing of a gun that result from the incomplete combustion of the gunpowder. Sandia has developed a colorimetric shooter identification kit for in situ detection of gunshot residue (GSR) from a suspect. The test kit is the first of its kind and is small, inexpensive, and easily transported by individual law enforcement personnel requiring minimal training for effective use. It will provide immediate information identifying gunshot residue.

Novel Collection and Analysis Techniques for Trace Narcotics Detection

This report discusses work performed in several areas applying novel approaches to the collection and analysis of trace drug material. The following key results have been demonstrated: (1) extraction of residual methamphetamine, cocaine, and heroin from sea water using solid phase microextraction, (2) the separation and detection of methamphetamine in methanol solution using a micro-gas chromatograph developed at Sandia coupled to a flame ionization detector, and (3) collection of methamphetamine vapor in a miniaturized (1.5 inch diameter) version of Sandias screen preconcentrator with near 50% efficiency. Further work in all of these application areas could prove useful to a variety of potential customers with interests in drug detection. This page intentionally left blank.

Detection of Methyl Salicylate Transforted by Honeybees (Apis mellifera) Using Solid Phase Microextration (SPME) Fibers

The ultimate goal of many environmental measurements is to determine the risk posed to humans or ecosystems by various contaminants. Conventional environmental monitoring typically requires extensive sampling grids covering several media including air, water, soil and vegetation. A far more efficient, innovative and inexpensive tactic has been found using honeybees as sampling mechanisms. Members from a single bee colony forage over large areas ({approx}2 x 10{sup 6} m{sup 2}), making tens of thousands of trips per day, and return to a fixed location where sampling can be conveniently conducted. The bees are in direct contact with the air, water, soil and vegetation where they encounter and collect any contaminants that are present in gaseous, liquid and particulate form. The monitoring of honeybees when they return to the hive provides a rapid method to assess chemical distributions and impacts (1). The primary goal of this technology is to evaluate the efficiency of the transport mechanism (honeybees) to the hive using preconcentrators to collect samples. Once the extent and nature of the contaminant exposure has been characterized, resources can be distributed and environmental monitoring designs efficiently directed to the most appropriate locations. Methyl salicylate, a chemical agent surrogate was used as the target compound in this study.

IMS applications analysis

This report examines the market potential of a miniature, hand-held Ion Mobility Spectrometer. Military and civilian markets are discussed, as well as applications in a variety of diverse fields. The strengths and weaknesses of competing technologies are discussed. An extensive Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS) bibliography is included. The conclusions drawn from this study are: (1) There are a number of competing technologies that are capable of detecting explosives, drugs, biological, or chemical agents. The IMS system currently represents the best available compromise regarding sensitivity, specificity, and portability. (2) The military market is not as large as the commercial market, but the military services are more likely to invest R and D funds in the system. (3) Military applications should be addressed before commercial applications are addressed. (4) There is potentially a large commercial market for rugged, hand-held Ion Mobility Spectrometer systems. Commercial users typically do not invest R and D funds in this type of equipment rather, they wait for off-the-shelf availability.