Philip J. Troped

The Built Environment and Location-Based Physical Activity

BACKGROUND Studies of the built environment and physical activity have implicitly assumed that a substantial amount of activity occurs near home, but in fact the location is unknown. PURPOSE This study aims to examine associations between built environment variables within home and work buffers and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) occurring within these locations. METHODS Adults (n=148) from Massachusetts wore an accelerometer and GPS unit for up to 4 days. Levels of MVPA were quantified within 50-m and 1-km home and work buffers. Multiple regression models were used to examine associations between five objective built environment variables within 1-km home and work buffers (intersection density, land use mix, population and housing unit density, vegetation index) and MVPA within those areas. RESULTS The mean daily minutes of MVPA accumulated in all locations=61.1+/-32.8, whereas duration within the 1-km home buffers=14.0+/-16.4 minutes. Intersection density, land use mix, and population and housing unit density within 1-km home buffers were positively associated with MVPA in the buffer, whereas a vegetation index showed an inverse relationship (all p<0.05). None of these variables showed associations with total MVPA. Within 1 km of work, only population and housing unit density were significantly associated with MVPA within the buffer. CONCLUSIONS Findings are consistent with studies showing that certain attributes of the built environment around homes are positively related to physical activity, but in this case only when the outcome was location-based. Simultaneous accelerometer-GPS monitoring shows promise as a method to improve understanding of how the built environment influences physical activity behaviors by allowing activity to be quantified in a range of physical contexts and thereby provide a more explicit link between physical activity outcomes and built environment exposures.

Virtual and actual: Relative accuracy of on-site and web-based instruments in auditing the environment for physical activity

OBJECTIVES To assess the relative accuracy and usefulness of web tools in evaluating and measuring street-scale built environment characteristics. METHODS A well-known audit tool was used to evaluate 84 street segments at the urban edge of metropolitan Boston, Massachusetts, using on-site visits and three web-based tools. The assessments were compared to evaluate their relative accuracy and usefulness. RESULTS Web-based audits, based-on Google Maps, Google Street View, and MS Visual Oblique, tend to strongly agree with on-site audits on land-use and transportation characteristics (e.g., types of buildings, commercial destinations, and streets). However, the two approaches to conducting audits (web versus on-site) tend to agree only weakly on fine-grain, temporal, and qualitative environmental elements. Among the web tools used, auditors rated MS Visual Oblique as the most valuable. Yet Street View tends to be rated as the most useful in measuring fine-grain features, such as levelness and condition of sidewalks. CONCLUSION While web-based tools do not offer a perfect substitute for on-site audits, they allow for preliminary audits to be performed accurately from remote locations, potentially saving time and cost and increasing the effectiveness of subsequent on-site visits.

Examination of Trends and Evidence‐Based Elements in State Physical Education Legislation: A Content Analysis

OBJECTIVES To develop a comprehensive inventory of state physical education (PE) legislation, examine trends in bill introduction, and compare bill factors. METHODS State PE legislation from January 2001 to July 2007 was identified using a legislative database. Analysis included components of evidence-based school PE from the Community Guide and other authoritative sources: minutes in PE, PE activity, teacher certification, and an environmental element, including facilities and equipment. Researchers abstracted information from each bill and a composite list was developed. RESULTS In total, 781 bills were analyzed with 162 enacted. Of the 272 bills that contained at least 1 evidence-based element, 43 were enacted. Only 4 bills included all 4 evidence-based elements. Of these 4, 1 was enacted. Funding was mentioned in 175 of the bills introduced (37 enacted) and an evaluation component was present in 172 of the bills (49 enacted). CONCLUSIONS Based on this analysis, we showed that PE is frequently introduced, yet the proportion of bills with evidence-based elements is low. Future research is needed to provide the types of evidence required for development of quality PE legislation.

Factors Associated with Federal Transportation Funding for Local Pedestrian and Bicycle Programming and Facilities

Providing safe, convenient places for walking and bicycling can reduce barriers to participating in regular physical activity. We examined bicycle- and pedestrian-related investments authorized by federal transportation legislation in 3,140 counties in the United States by region, population size and urbanization, social and economic characteristics, and indicators of travel-related walking and bicycling. From 1992 to 2004, states and counties implemented 10,012 bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects representing

Psychosocial and environmental factors associated with dog-walking

3.17 billion in federal expenditures. We found disparities in implementation and system-building outcomes according to population size and location and social and economic indicators. Counties characterized by persistent poverty (odds ratio=0.69, 95% confidence interval 0.53–0.91) or low educational status (odds ratio=0.66, 95% confidence interval 0.52–0.84) were less likely to implement projects. Three key policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes are drawn from this research: Improved data tracking, more explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health, and improved planning assistance to underserved communities are all seen as essential steps.

Policy Influences on Community Trail Development

Dog walking is associated with higher levels of physical activity (PA). However, not all dog owners walk their dog(s) at a level sufficient for health benefits. Therefore, identifying correlates of dog-walking may help to inform the design of more effective interventions to promote this specific form of PA. The purpose of this study was to examine psychosocial and environmental correlates of dog-walking and relationships of dog-walking with overall PA. In 2010, 391 dog owners (mean age = 43.6 ± 12.3 years) completed a survey. Multiple logistic regression and structural equation modeling were used to examine psychosocial and environmental correlates of dog-walking status, weekly minutes of dog-walking, and relationships of dog-walking with overall PA. Self-efficacy for dog-walking, dog-related outcome expectancies, family social support, dog social support, and neighborhood walking environment were associated with a 1.3–5.6 greater odds of being a dog walker. Self-efficacy mediated relationships between family support, dog support, and presence of a yard and dog-walking. Neighborhood environment, including the presence of greenery and trails, was also positively associated with duration of dog-walking (β = 0.17; p < 0.05). Every 30-minute increase in dog-walking was associated with a 23% greater odds of meeting PA guidelines by walking. Individual, social, and environmental factors consistent with a social–ecological framework were positively associated with dog-walking. Individuals were more likely to meet PA guidelines if they walked their dog(s) and engaged in dog-walking for longer duration.

Gender Differences in Social Influence on Physical Activity at Different Stages of Exercise Adoption

This study explores processes and policies that facilitate the development of community trails. With funding from Active Living Research and the research framework of the Physical Activity Policy Research Network (PAPRN), we conducted a multiple-site case study. A total of six trails in Hawaii, Massachusetts, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Washington were chosen for study. The goals of this case study were to identify the policy influences on trail development, explore the roles of key players in trail development, and compare and contrast findings from the different trails. Trail development can be a long process. Some of the trails took over a decade to complete because of funding, opposition, and roadblocks in the form of design standard policies. Work in trail development requires a team of many players, and it is necessary to balance their varied motives to accomplish a shared overall goal. Foresight through the master planning process is also a vital component of successful trail development. Finally, community involvement is key. Communities contemplating trail development should explore the effects of policy on the trail projects reported here to proactively identify potential influence.

A Systematic Review of Agreement Between Perceived and Objective Neighborhood Environment Measures and Associations With Physical Activity Outcomes

The belief that significant others (referents) felt the subjects should exercise (normative beliefs) was the strongest in subjects in the maintenance stage and weakest for subjects in the inactive stage. This pattern occurred in all the referent groups and for both male and female subjects. Womens normative beliefs were stronger than mens for all the stages and referent groups. For men, motivation to comply with referents was strongest in the maintenance stage and weakest in the inactive stage. This pattern was not as clearly visible in female subjects. Inactive women had higher motivation to comply then did men for all conditions and referent groups, but this motivation was most pronounced in the inactive stage.

Relationships Between the Built Environment and Walking and Weight Status Among Older Women in Three U.S. States

A number of review studies document associations between the perceived and objectively measured neighborhood environment and physical activity. However, current evidence does not discern whether perceived or objective variables more consistently predict physical activity. A review is needed to examine the comparability of these variables and the consistency of their respective associations with the same physical activity outcome. We systematically searched three databases for studies that examined agreement between perceived and objective measures and/or associations between comparable variables and physical activity. We abstracted 85 relevant peer-reviewed studies published between 1990 and 2015, synthesized agreement coefficients, and compared these variables’ associations with physical activity. Perceived neighborhood environment variables were significantly associated with physical activity (p < .05) at slightly higher rates than objective neighborhood environment variables (20.1% and 13.7%). Comparably defined variables exhibited low agreement and only 8.2% were associated with the same outcome. The perceived neighborhood environment and objectively measured neighborhood environment are related but distinct constructs that account for unique variance in physical activity.

Youth perceptions of how neighborhood physical environment and peers affect physical activity: a focus group study

There are few studies of built environment associations with physical activity and weight status among older women in large geographic areas that use individual residential buffers to define environmental exposures. Among 23,434 women (70.0 ± 6.9 yr; range = 57-85) in 3 states, relationships between objective built environment variables and meeting physical activity recommendations via walking and weight status were examined. Differences in associations by population density and state were explored in stratified models. Population density (odds ratio [OR] =1.04 [1.02, 1.07]), intersection density (ORs = 1.18-1.28), and facility density (ORs = 1.01-1.53) were positively associated with walking. Density of physical activity facilities was inversely associated with overweight/obesity (OR = 0.69 [0.49, 0.96]). The strongest associations between facility density variables and both outcomes were found among women from higher population density areas. There was no clear pattern of differences in associations across states. Among older women, relationships between accessible facilities and walking may be most important in more densely populated settings.